Pychology 200 Chapter 6

Memory

The mental processes that enable you to encode, retain, and retrieve information over time

Encoding

the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system. Effective encoding strategies involve elaborative rehearsal, self-reference effect, and visual imagery.

Storage

the process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time

Retrievel

The process of recovering stored information into conscious awareness

The Stage Model of Memory

Describes memory as three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time. Sensory impressions to overlap slightly, therefore we perceive the world continuously rather than a series of disconnected sensory experiences. Though they’re brief, these memories provide a very large, detailed record of sensory experience.

Visual sensory memory (AKA iconic memory)

It is the brief sensory memory of an image, or icon. Duration: approximately ¼ to ½ of a second Measured first by George Sperling using partial report technique.

Auditory sensory memory (AKA echoic memory)

A brief memory that is like an echo. Duration: Lasts up to three or four seconds

Short-Term Memory (STM)

The active stage of memory in which information is transferred from sensory to long-term memory, storing information for up to about 20 seconds, this duration can be increased through repetition of information. It is known as the “workshop” of consciousness and it’s where sensory information and long term memory are integrated and processed consciously, as well as encoding .

Short-Term Memory (STM) capacity

Described by George Miller as “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two” items, or bits of information When the capacity is reached, new information will displace, or bump out currently held information. Research suggests that the true “magical number” may be four plus or minus one.

Chunking

Increases the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit. Often involves the retrieval of meaningful information from long-term memory. E.g., social security numbers

Working memory

Involves temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.

Baddeley’s model

Proposes that working memory consists of the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive.

Phonological loop

is specialized for auditory material such as lists of numbers or words.

Visuospatial sketchpad

is specialized for spatial or visual material such as the layout of a room or city.

Central executive

Controls attention, integrates information, and manages the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Long-Term memory

The stage of memory that represents the long-term storage of information that potentially lasts a lifetime and a limitless capacity. Is split into two different interacting subsystems, explicit memory and implicit memory.

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

Memory with awareness. Information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected.

Two types of explicit memory: Episodic information—information about events Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

Episodic memory:

Category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events, including the time and place that they occurred.

Semantic memory

Category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names.

Procedural memory

Category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions.

Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

Memory without awareness, Information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected Procedural memories Motor skills, actions

How does working memory differ from short-term memory (STM)?

STM refers to temporary storage, while working memory involves both storage and conscious manipulation of information.

What is the difference between working memory and long-term memory?

Long-term memory stores information permanently, while working memory temporarily holds and manipulates information.

Elaborative rehearsal

focusing on the meaning of information. For example, you would use your existing knowledge to generate examples or make connections. Try to explain a concept in your own words.

Self-reference effect

applying information to the self

Visual imagery

using vivid images to enhance encoding

Memory Clustering

Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory.

There are several models of how information is organized. One of the best known is the semantic network model.

Semantic network model

A model that describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations. When a concept is activated in the semantic network, it can spread in any number of directions, activating other associations in network.

For example, the word red might activate “blue” (another color), “apple” or “fire truck” (objects that are red), or “alert” (as in the phrase “red alert”).

Memory retrieval

The process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Most often, our ability to retrieve information depends upon the availability of retrieval cues.

Retrieval cue

A clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory.

Retrieval cue failure

the inability to recall long- term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues. A well known example is the Tip-of the-tongue (TOT) experience.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT)

the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long- term memory but being unable to retrieve it. Usual occurs once per week and is common in older adults, may even occur in American sign language users as tip-of-the-fingers experience. Proves that retrieval isn’t an all-or-nothing process.

Recall

Test of long-term memory (LTM) that involves retrieving memories without cues; also termed free recall. e.g., essay test

Cued recall

Test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue. e.g., fill in the blank test

Recognition

Test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices. e.g., multiple choice test

Serial position effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle There are two parts to the serial position effect, primacy effect and recency effect

Primacy effect

the tendency to recall the first items in a list

Recency effect

the tendency to recall the final items in a list

The encoding specificity principle

states that when the conditions, context effect and mood congruence, of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful.

The context effect

The tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information.

Mood congruence

refers to the phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood.

Distinctiveness

Information and experiences that are unusual & unique stand out in our memories. We retrieve them more easily. These distinct, flashbulb memories functioned and decayed similar to ordinary memories. Individuals appear to feel more confidant that these memories are accurate.

The Flashbulb memory research

A study that begin in 9/12/2001 in which the memories of 9/11 from Duke university students, with flashbulb memory and control memory being compared over a year, Flashbulb memories functioned much like ordinary memories over time. Both showed similar rates of decay over time. However, people reported a higher degree of subjective confidence in the accuracy of flashbulb memories, albeit confidence doesn’t inherently mean that these memories are guaranteed to be accurate.

Forgetting

The inability to recall information that was previously available.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Scientifically studied the phenomenon of forgetting using himself as a research subject to study how much information is forgotten after different lengths of time. He memorized lists of nonsense syllables, such as: ROH and LEZ. He tested his recall after varying lengths of time. He plotted his results -

The forgetting curve: Much of what we forget is lost relatively soon after we originally learned it.

Encoding failure

One of the most common reasons for forgetting occurs when information is not encoded initially into long-term memory. Absentmindedness may be due to divided attention at the time of encoding

Prospective memory error

Failure to remember what needs to be done in the future due to retrieval cue failure. Setting reminders can provide retrieval cues.

Decay theory

When a new memory is formed, it creates a distinct structural or chemical change in the brain (memory trace). Memory traces fade away over time as a matter of normal brain processes. However, research has shown that information can be remembered decades after it was originally learned. Ebbinghaus theorized that the rate of forgetting decreases over time.

Interference Theory

the theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another. This occurs most often when the information is similar. Has two types, retroactive interference and proactive interference

Retroactive interference

A NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information.

Proactive interference

A OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information.

Motivated forgetting

occurs when an undesired memory is held back from awareness, either through suppression and repression.

Suppression

conscious forgetting Try to block it out, distract yourself, etc.

Repression

unconscious forgetting Based on Freud’s theory that psychologically threatening emotions, conflicts, and urges are blocked from consciousness. Freud believed this repressed material would unconsciously influence the individual. Controversial and difficult to test scientifically.

How memories are malleable

They can be easily distorted and contain inaccuracies. Confidence in a memory doesn’t guarantee it’s accurateness. Memories aren’t recorded in the brain, they are constructed and reconstructed when they recollected, and so details may change over time. Without awareness details may be added, subtracted, exaggerated, or downplayed.

Elisabeth Loftus’ and Palmer’s 1974 research

Participants viewed a film of an accident and were then asked to remember details, “About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?” Depending on the phrasing of the question, how the participants’ responded varied, with participants estimating higher speed when the word smashed was used.

A week later, “Did you see any broken glass?” Although there was no broken glass, those who heard the word “smashed” were more likely to say “Yes.”

The misinformation effect

a memory-distortion phenomenon in which people’s existing memories can be altered by exposing them to misleading information.

Schemas

organized clusters of knowledge and information about particular topics. Useful in forming new memories; enables quick integration of new experiences into existing knowledge. Can also contribute to memory distortions. We remember objects and events as we expect them to be, not as they actually are.

Source confusion

a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten. A memory can be attributed to the wrong source.

False memory

A distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur. Feels completely real and is often accompanied by all of the emotional impact of a real memory. Factors that may contribute to this phenomena includes the misinformation effect, schema distortion, source confusion, false familiarity, blending fact and fiction, and suggestion.

Lost-in-the-mall technique

Research strategies in which the studies have created false memories for events that never happened by asking participants remember real events and imagine pseudoevents.

Loftus’ and Pickrell’s 1995 “Lost in the Mall” study

24 participants were given descriptions of 4 early childhood events. 3 were real events (stories were obtained from the participants' parents) 1 was a pseudo-event (lost in the mall) Participants read the descriptions and reported all they could remember. They returned on 2 subsequent occasions to again recount the descriptions. By the final interview 6 of the 24 had created false memories.

Misinformation effect

This occurs when erroneous information is received after an event, leading to distorted or false memories of that specific event.

Schema distortion

The tendency for a person to fill in missing memory details with information that aligns with their preexisting knowledge or expectations.

Source confusion

Involves forgetting or misremembering the original, true source of a particular memory.

False familiarity

This refers to increased feelings of familiarity that arise from repeatedly imagining an event.

Blending fact and fiction

The process of using vivid, authentic details to increase the legitimacy and believability of a false event.

Suggestion

The use of hypnosis, guided imagery, or other highly suggestive techniques that can influence memory recall.

What did Hermann Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve demonstrate?

Most forgetting occurs relatively soon after learning.

What does the context effect suggest about memory retrieval?

We tend to recall information better when in the same setting where it was learned.

Retrograde amnesia

inability to remember past episodic information Backward-acting amnesia Common after head injury; interrupted consolidation

Memory consolidation

gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories Forward-acting amnesia Related to hippocampus damage

Dementia

progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions as the result of disease, injury, or substance abuse.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

progressive disease that destroys the brain’s neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions resulting in the complete inability to care for oneself, being the most common cause of dementia. Though the cause is unknown, patients show an unusual buildup of protein plaques and fibrous tangles.

Early stages of Alzeheimer’s is characterized by mild impairments, such as:

forgetting names of familiar people or the location of familiar places; forgetting to do things.

Late stages of Alzeheimer’s is characterized by severe impairments, such as:

the inability to care for self, recognize loved ones, or communicate in any meaningful way

What does Henry Molaison’s case (H.M.) suggest about the role of the hippocampus in memory?

It encodes new memories and transfers them to long-term storage

What is amnesia?

Severe memory loss