English A LangLit HL

Lighting

Lighting determines not only brightness and darkness, but also tone, mood and the atmosphere.
\-luminosity

Bright

Exudes warmth and friendliness, Vitality

Dark

Moody, eerie, dangerous, quiet, romantic, scary, weird, or

contemplative.

Backlight

emphasizes the depth behind the subject and gives images a greater

sense of place
dramatic effect; produce a dramatic contrast between the subject and the
background.

Split light

Recognize split lighting in an image by half of the subject being lit and

the other half in the shadows
Light that hits your subject from the side at a 90-degree angle.
Make your subject look tough and masculine
The strong side lighting emphasizes the texture of the skin and the
details of the face.
It gives photos a sense of power, assertiveness or conviction.

Smiles and teeth

Connotes to a friendly, jovial, and affable figure

Gaze (away)

Makes subject appear aloof, distant, or unapproachable

Gaze (towards
camera)

Allows subject to engage with the reader

Crossing hands

Makes subject look strong

Distances the subject from the reader

Fidgeting hands

Sign of weakness
Indecisiveness

Torso

Leaning forward = engagement
Leaning backwards = disengaged

Satire

the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's stupidity or
vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues.
Target: poke fun of a particular leader, a social custom or tradition, or any other prevalent
social figure or practice that they want to comment on and call into question.

Bird’s-eye view

perspective is very foreshortened, making the subject appear short and

squat.
can be used to give an overall establishing shot of a scene, or to
emphasise the smallness or insignificance of the subjects.

High angle

make the subject seem vulnerable or powerless when applied with the

correct mood, setting, and effects.
In film, they can make the scene more dramatic

Eye-level angle

simulate standard human vision and thus present visual

information through a familiar viewpoint.
considered to be emotionally neutral and is best used for straight,
factual presentation.

Low angle

When shooting from lower, the height of what's above in the shot looks
taller or higher. You can combine this effect with miniature props to
create a more dramatic effect. The lower you go, the higher the
perceived height will be in the shot.
Psychologically, the effect of the low-angle shot

Worm’s eye view

Makes the viewer feel vulnerable, even if the subject itself isn't

frightening.

Social commentary

the act of using rhetorical means to provide commentary on issues in a

society
This is often done with the idea of implementing or promoting change
by informing the general populace about a given problem and appealing
to people's sense of justice.

Guerilla art

unauthorized, anonymous, potentially controversial installation of an

artwork in a public or private place.

Situational irony

irony involving a situation in which actions have an effect that is
opposite from what was intended, so that the outcome is contrary to
what was expected.

trompe l'oeil

visual illusion in art, especially as used to trick the eye into perceiving a

painted detail as a three-dimensional object.

Anaphora

The repetition of a word or a phrase at the beginning of the sentence
appeals to the feelings, or pathos, of your audience. By repeating a word
or phrase, your readers or listeners start to anticipate the next line. They
are drawn into your words through a sense of participation.
used to appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to persuade,
inspire, motivate and encourage them.

Diacope

Repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or phrase
used to express strong emotion or to draw attention to the repeated
phrase. It works by making a phrase memorable and even rhythmic.

antithesis

contrasting two opposing ideas in consecutive sentences

highlights the stark difference between opposing ideas by placing them
side-by-side in exactly the same structure. When used in the context of
an argument, the way these ideas are placed side-by-side can make it
obvious which idea is better.

Chiasmus

a reversal in the order of words in two otherwise parallel phrases.
creates a highly symmetrical structure, and gives the impression of
completeness. We seem to have “come full circle,” so to speak, and the
sentence (or paragraph, etc.) seems to tie up all the loose ends.

anadiplosis

repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the

following clause

anadiplosis can give your story, presentation, training, speech, email,
etc. a more natural sound, making it feel more like a conversation rather
than a formal speech.

amplification

The repetition of a word or a phrase with the addition of more detail, in

order to emphasize something
amplification tends to highlight the importance of an idea, to stimulate
an emotional response among the audience. In fact, it adds an
exaggeration, increases the rhetorical effect, and emphasizes to further
elaborate definitions, descriptions, and arguments in a piece.

alliteration

the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent

or closely connected words.
Alliteration focuses readers' attention on a particular section of text.
Alliterative sounds create rhythm and mood and can have particular
connotations. For example, repetition of the "s" sound often suggests a
snake-like quality, implying slyness and danger.

tricolon

tricolon allows you to emphasize your point in a pithy and memorable

way.

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or

clauses
helps make an idea or argument clear and easy to remember. It also
shows that each repeated structure is of equal importance. And, it is a
powerful tool for public speaking.

Hypophora

a figure of speech in which a writer raises a question and then

immediately provides an answer to that question
Hypophora can be effective in capturing the curiosity of your audience.
For example, in a speech, if you can anticipate the questions individuals
are wondering and answer them, it works to captivate them. Think about
it. A president poses a question, then after a well-timed pause, they give
you the answer.

Polysyndeton

A way of listing items to include “and” instead of commas, in order to

stress the importance of something
In business, academic, or creative writing, each word or group of words
connected by the and is more emphasized than it would be without the
and. The primary effect of polysyndeton is to slow readers down so
they can take in all the information.
The repetition of the conjunctions adds power to the other words.
Polysyndeton slows down the pace of the sentence.
It can add rhythm and cadence to a sentence or series of
sentences.
There is a feeling that the ideas are being built up.

allusion

an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it

explicitly; an indirect or passing reference.
Allusions are used by authors to stimulate ideas and extra information in
the readers mind with just a word or two. It helps the reader understand
and feel the scene much better by referencing a well-known character or
situation.

Weasel words

words that are intentionally ambiguous, vague, or misleading; used to
suggest a positive meaning without actually really making any guarantee
Used to modify statements, weakening any real meaning or force. This
allows you to say anything without offending anyone or putting yourself
into danger of being contradicted. Use weasel words assertively and
their weakness will often all but disappear (it's not what you say but how
you say it).

glittering
generalities

emotionally appealing words associated with highly-valued concepts
that carry conviction without supporting information.
e.g. freedom, opportunity
Such highly valued concepts attract general approval and acclaim.
Propagandists employ vague, sweeping statements (often slogans or
simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs
deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information
or reason.

euphenism

the substitution of a relatively inoffensive term for one that is considered

too harsh, unpleasant, or blunt
e.g. "pass away" instead of "die"
generally used to avoid confrontation, avoid hurting people's feelings, or
substitute for profanity, they are also used to mislead or obfuscate the
real meaning of what is being said.
As political strategies, euphemism minimizes social embarrassment,
usually to protect the speaker rather than the audience.

dysphenism

opposite of euphenism; the substitution of a more offensive or
disparaging word or phrase for one considered less offensive.
e.g. "kicked the bucket" instead of "die"
increases social embarrassment or offence to others, sometimes for
comic effect.

Loaded words

words that are emotionally charged--either positively or negatively
e.g. the noun plant generates no significant emotional response, but
flower inspires a positive feeling and weed a negative feeling.
can significantly contribute to persuading others to adopt our point of
view.

quotations

The main reason to quote material in your speech is to reinforce your
words. A quotation offers a second voice that echoes your thoughts,
beliefs, and claims. They said it better: Quotations provide a better way
of saying things. They give you a more concise, memorable phrasing for
an idea.

Newsworthiness

Negativity: people are drawn to bad news. “If it bleeds, it leads”: if a
story has negative news, it will come before (lead) all other stories in the
news paper
Relevance: whether a news affects the daily lives of the audience

Extraordinary: unexpected and unique events

News satire

Texts that expose the ridiculousness of human behavior by writing
seemingly serious articles about outrageous events and people

tautology

A phrase which says the same thing twice

conflict

Individual vs. society
Individual vs. circumstances
Individual vs. himself/herself
Sometimes the word “seemed” may suggest that there is a conflict
looming in the background.

setting

Where the story is set is important for reflecting the atmosphere of the

story

alienation

A common conflict between the character and the setting

Reliable narrator

Can be trusted by the reader, although the reader may not
agree with the narrator. Is honest even if the telling of the
story is offensive or unpleasant (unbiased or equally-
weighted descriptions) Understands the plot. Provides
events that may actually happen for any particular
occurance.

unreliable narrator

An unreliable narrator is an untrustworthy storyteller, most
often used in narratives with a first-person point of view.
The unreliable narrator is either deliberately deceptive or
unintentionally misguided, forcing the reader to question
their credibility as a storyteller.

Reported speech

a speaker's words reported in subordinate clauses governed by a
reporting verb, with the required changes of person and tense
(e.g. he said that he would go, based on I will go ).

Direct speech

the reporting of speech by repeating the actual words of a

speaker, for example “I'm going,” she said.

Denouement

the final part of a play, movie, or narrative in which the strands of
the plot are drawn together and matters are explained or
resolved.

It happens right after the climax, the most exciting point in
the story, and it shows the aftermath of that climax, giving
the reader some hints as to what will happen next.
The denouement is usually the very last thing your
audience sees, so it has to be well-written or the story will
seem unsatisfying.

Blue

Serenity, youth,

Red

Passionate, Zealous, Hostiliy, Warmth, Anger

Green

Renewal, Refreshment and peace, rest and security

Yellow

Energetic, Frustration, Optimistic

Gold

ennoblement

News Article

Consider:

* The source, its context and ethics
* The audience (if online, think global as well as local, as well as considering other demographic details, such as age, income, profession and interests)
* Loaded/emotive language
* The use of hyperlinks, sharing functions etc (e.g. to social media)
* The pragmatics (how context contributes to meaning) of the texts (the writer’s agenda or opinion, (whether implicit or explicit).
* Elements of rhetoric: ethos ,logos, pathos
* Connections between the structure, purpose and audience (e.g. Short paragraphs may appeal more to people of lower education, or when writing to entertain

\
KEY FEATURES OF NEWS WRITING

* **Masthead:** a strip across the top of a newspaper front page containing the *name* of the newspaper, the *date* of publication and the *price*. Tabloid papers from the UK are called ‘red-tops’ because of the red colour of the masthead.
* **Headline:** the choice of words in a headline is essential to the tone and angle of the story. There are many techniques involved in creating headlines and you should definitely learn: *slammer; pun; alliteration; elliptical headlines* (which only include the keywords).
* **Visuals:** all newspapers make use of *photographs* to accompany stories. Tabloid papers are dominated by images while broadsheet papers tend to use smaller photographs. Look out for pictures of people’s faces, which reveal emotion and create bias.
* **Copy:** the main text of the article. Features you should be on the look out for are: *sensationalism; vague language; emotive language* and *euphemism*.
* **Embedded interviews:** you can expect to find *witness recounts, expert opinions* and statements from *authority figures* in almost all newspaper reports.
* **Bias:** all kinds of bias exist in newspaper reports, from *selection bias* (the choice of what content to include and what to exclude) to *name-calling*, to the use of certain *facts and statistics* and more.
* **Figurative Language:** anyone who still thinks the news is purely factual needs to go back to the start of the course! News reports are a rich source of *metaphor, simile, hyperbole,* *sensationalism*, and *exaggeration,* often *distorting* *reality* in some way.

Editorials

Consider:

* The source, its context and ethics
* The audience( if online, think global as well as local, as well as considering other demographic details, such as age, income, profession and interests.
* Loaded/emotive language
* The pragmatics of the text( the writer’s agenda or opinion, whether implicit or explicit).
* What does the writer(= the editor of the publication) aim to convince readers of?

Blog/Diary Entry

Consider:

* The formality of the text, and the reason for this ( a diary entry by a WWI soldier might have quite a different register than a 21st cent. Blog entry)
* The emotions portrayed, and the techniques ( literary and linguistic) used to achieve this.
* The sequencing and control of the narration
* If there is an audience, and if so, who is this audience and how are they addressed
* The date at the top of the entry, this will give you some context.
* Any sharing facilities on a blog
* The public nature of the blogs v the private nature of a traditional diary

\
KEY FEATURES OF BLOGS

* **Viewpoint:** blogs normally represent the interests and opinions of an individual, so are normally *first person*.
* **Purpose:** Blogs are guided by individual interests or concerns so the purpose is *flexible*. A blog might seek to *inform* readers about an area of interest, topic or movement. They may also *discuss* an event or issue. Blogs might even function like an online diary, *describing* the day’s events and reflecting on an experience.
* **Diction:** depending on the topic, writers of blogs could employ a *specialist vocabulary* or use *technical terms*.
* **Visuals:** blogs may illustrate the text with cartoons, images or photographs (perhaps illustrated or taken by the writers themselves).
* **Structure:** again dependent on the individual text, but you can look out for *chronological* and *linear* structures with subheadings, clear connectives or other features helping organise the text.

\
KEY FEATURES OF DIARIES

* **Viewpoint:** as one of the most personal text types, diaries are written in the *first person* and always express thoughts and feelings.
* **Perspective:** diaries are written to be private as the reader and writer are the same person. *Confessional* is a particular form of diary writing that reveals a secret.
* **Structure:** diaries function as records of the day’s events and are largely *chronological*. Look out for *flashbacks* when the writer begins at the end, then goes back to explore how and why an event happened.
* **Register and tone:** most diaries are written in an *informal* or *semi-formal* register, using language the writer feels comfortable with. Look out for language which reveals the attitude of the writer (*tone*): it is not uncommon for diaries to be thoughtful and reflective, scathing and caustic… or anything in between.
* **Colloquialism:** the writer might write as if he or she is talking and may use *figures of speech* in an original or entertaining way.

Political Cartoons

**Consider:**

* The context of the outlet(e.g the political beliefs it promotes, even if only roughly- The Telegraph for example, is more on the right-wing side)
* The cartoonist’s agenda- what are they trying to criticize through their satire?
* The shape of the speech bubbles
* Any __emanata (unrealistic pictorial elements emanating from a character, symbolizes something from the character)__ that are used( e.g sweat, tears)
* The text size in the speech bubbles, particularly in proportion to those of any other characters speaking.
* The amount of speech one character has compared to another.
* Artistic techniques and how they support the text

\
KEY FEATURES OF SATIRICAL CARTOONS

* **Purpose:** satirical or political cartoons aim to *satirise*; this means they ridicule, lampoon or criticise a specific *target* which may be a person, group of people or a particular decision or viewpoint.
* **Irony:** meaning when one’s actions contradict one’s words. Look out for people in cartoons saying one thing and doing another.
* **Caricature:** people are *simplified*, *exaggerated* or *distorted* for effect. An element of caricature may be *synecdoche*, whereby a part of something is made to stand for the whole.
* **Symbolism:** objects, icons and even colours have specific associations. Sometimes items are *labelled* in the text to help the reader make associations.
* **Allusion:** the cartoon may refer to historical or political events outside the text. The success of an allusion depends on the reader’s ability to recognise it.
* **Tone:** *scathing, sarcastic, pointed*, or *critical* are some of the words you might use to describe the tone of satirical cartoons.

Brochures and Leaflets

Consider:

* The dual purpose( inform and persuade)
* The provision of step by step guidance, add the structural elements that go with this(e.g.bullet points),as well as the significance of this.
* The use of linguistic features such as __imperative verbs (command verbs)__
* The size,placement and connotation of images
* The tone( usually authoritative)

Forum Posts

Consider:

* The level of formality
* The potential use of slang and abbreviations( IDK,LOL, BTW)
* The use of emoticons/emojis
* __Syntax (Sentence structure)__
* The purpose of the replies( to advise, to criticize, agree…)
* The length of the responses
* The potential lack of paragraphs
* The public/online forum and the ability to share responses
* The use of usernames and avatars, and what these may connote 

Academic journal

Consider:

* The level of formality( likely very high, but not always, it can depend on the prestige of the journal)
* The audience( interest-wise and in terms of their level of education)
* The subject matter
* The purpose of the text

\
KEY FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES

* **Informative:** the purpose of scientific writing is to share knowledge, so look out for informative features such as *facts and statistics* and *clear explanations*. Some articles will also *simplify* concepts for a more general readership.
* **Diction:** inevitably, writing about science and nature will involve using a *specialist vocabulary* of *technical* and *precise terms*.
* **Comparisons:** some scientific concepts are quite abstract or complex, so writers of scientific articles might use *similes and comparisons* to make them easier for a wider readership to visualise.
* **Visuals:** photographs, diagrams, charts and graphs are all likely to accompany and illustrate scientific concepts. Look out for more examples of *simplification*.
* **Credibility:** research, *authoritative sources*, and quotations by *experts* make far-out concepts more credible.
* **Structure:** look out for both *linear* and *non-linear* structures and layouts, depending on the content. A text might provide a *timeline* or *historical overview*. *Boxouts, summaries, explainers, glossaries* can all help communicate complicated ideas.

Reviews:

Consider:

* The level of formality and amount of detail
* The potential use of a star rating  or mark out of 5
* The outlet’s audience( e.g. interests, level of education)
* The context of the source(e.g.it may be worth discussing a TripAdvisory review in the context of the well publicised ‘fake reviews’ scandal)
* Linguistic elements such as semantics and pragmatics (how context contributes to meaning)

\
KEY FEATURES OF OPINION COLUMNS

* **Perspective:** as an expression of a personal viewpoint, the *first person* is most commonly adopted for opinion pieces. Look out for ‘we’ instead of ‘I’ – a clever way of implying the viewpoint is commonly held.
* **Solid Arguments:** an opinion piece might open your eyes to the reality of an issue, providing *facts*, *statistics* and *information* to help convince you of the writer’s viewpoint. Expect to see opinions backed up by *studies, research* or *evidence* of some kind. Keep an eye out for *assertion*, though, where a writer presents an opinion as if it were a fact.
* **Anecdotes:** sometimes a writer will relate a small story from his or her personal experience in order to demonstrate a *thoughtful approach* to the topic at hand. You may find the opinion piece begins with this story, which acts as a kind of *hook* into the main article.
* **Structure:** the writer of an opinion piece is not trying to keep you in suspense and the opinion is often obvious from the title or first few lines of the article. The rest of the article should support or develop the writer’s point in a number of ways. The ending should be strong and certain, perhaps *reiterating* the writer’s position.
* **Register and tone:** you should be especially alert to the writer’s choices in this regard. Opinion pieces are often *formal*, but the writer may adopt an *irreverent tone*, be *passionate*, *conversational,* *friendly*, *challenging*, even *sarcastic* depending on the tactics used to convince you of a particular opinion.
* **Concession:** although similar in many ways, opinion pieces are not quite the same as persuasive speeches, so the writer is not necessarily trying to change your opinion. In this case, you might find *concessions* to the other side of the argument or even an *acknowledgement* that the writer’s opinion is flawed in some way.

Speeches/Talks

Consider:

* The level of formality(= register)
* The audience involved
* The context of the speech( historical or otherwise)
* Any use of rhetoric(ethos,logos,pathos,anaphora,repetition,second person, etc)
* The purpose( persuade + maybe inform and/or entertain)

\
KEY FEATURES OF SPEECHES

* **Ethos:** the speaker establishes his or her *credibility* and may *allude* to a moral, social or spiritual leader with whom the audience cannot disagree.
* **Logos:** clear, *reasonable arguments, facts and statistics* and *quoting experts* in the field are all ways of establishing a logical appeal.
* **Pathos:** *emotive language* and *imagery* are ways of helping the audience empathise with the feelings of other – often vulnerable – people.
* **Persuasive:** the speaker attempts to make his or her listener think in a certain way, believe something or *take action*.
* **Direct address:** the speaker tries to draw closer to the listeners by addressing them as *‘you’* – look out for the use of *‘we’* or*‘us’* to include the speaker and listener on the same side – and be wary of attempts to *compliment the listener*.
* **Modality:** modal verbs are small but important words (such as *‘must’, ‘need’, ‘should’*, *‘might,’* and so on) that reveal the speaker’s degree of certainty and strength of feeling. You can study modality here.
* **Rhetorical devices:** all kinds of rhythmical, structural, auditory and linguistic tricks can be employed by a skilled speaker. They are too many to list here, but rhetorical strategies can be studied and learned.
* **Logical Fallacies:** also called ‘argumentation fallacies.’ Common fallacies in speeches are *glittering generalisations*, *simplification* and *slippery slope*.

Tweets:

Consider:

* The level of formality ( likely, but not always quite low)
* Visual and typographical features(e.g. The blue tick)
* The use of rhetorical devices
* The use of other linguistic features, such as imperative verbs
* The tone of the tweet(s) in question
* Who is tweeting
* The nature of the replies to the tweets themselves
* The nature of Twitter as a platform(e.g. Ephemeral, but with the potential to go viral)

Letters and Emails

Consider:

* The stylistic features identifying the document as a letter or email(e.g. Salutation, time stamp)
* The level of formality
* Linguistic features, such as slang or imperative verbs
* The purpose of the text
* The length of the paragraphs and sentences,and the possible significance of these choices
* The relationship between the writer and the reader
* The urgency of the text( normally more pronounced in emails due to the very nature of them) is this expressed implicitly or explicitly

\
KEY FEATURES OF LETTERS

* **Name and address:** formal letters are posted to the recipient, so they normally contain both the *sender and receiver’s address*, allowing the recipient to reply. The sender’s address is traditionally placed on the right hand side, with the *date* below it.
* **Purpose:** people send letters for all kinds of reasons; to complain, to seek advice, to connect with a loved one or even to pass gossip. The purpose of this text type is completely *flexible*.
* **Register:** letters can be *formal* or *informal* depending on the purpose and relationship between the sender and receiver. The *tone* can vary widely too: compare a formal letter of complaint with an intimate letter between lovers.
* **Salutation:** a direct address to the recipient. Depending on context, they can vary from the formal *‘Dear…’* or even *‘To whom this may concern…’* to a quick *‘Hi…’*
* **Sign off:** you can tell a lot about the relationship between the reader and the writer from the way the letter ends. Formally, *‘yours sincerely’* is used if the recipient’s name was used and *‘yours faithfully’* is used when the writer does not know the name of the receiver. Non-conventional sign-offs can be used for a variety of reasons; check the end of the letter to see if the writer expects a reply.

Interviews:

Consider:

* The form: embedded or transcript?
* How, where and when we can detect changes in tone or register( between the journalist and the interviewee, for instance) and why this may occur
* The use of anecdotes
* The use of leading questions and what this may tell us about the interviewer’s agenda
* The possible audience of the interview( based on, for example: in what publication has it been printed? Who is the interviewee? Who, age, interest or geography-wise, might be the fans of this person? Is the interview published on a web page?)

\
KEY FEATURES OF INTERVIEWS

* **Question-Answer:** a recognisable feature of interviews in this format, which presents the questions asked and responses using quotations (direct speech).
* **Register:** as a record of a spoken conversation, a written interview is likely to contain examples of language that is more like speech. Look out for *colloquialisms, idioms, contractions* and even *jokes*.
* **Quotation:** as an alternative to the question-answer format, you might see interviews written up as a magazine article. In this case you will see a mixture of direct quotation and *indirect free speech*.
* **Topics**: the interview may be focused on one issue or may range across various topics. Look out for the interviewer asking *leading questions* to take the conversation in a particular direction.
* **Perspective**: the interview presents a *one-sided* view on a topic or person, so is likely to be highly *subjective*. The interviewee may use *assertive statements* which present opinions as if they are facts.
* **Them-and-us:** celebrity interviews tend to put interviewees on a pedestal. Look for ways in which the text creates a divide between celebrities and ‘us’, the reader, or represents the interviewee as *special* in some way.

Advertisements:

Consider:

* Visual features, including the connotations of color and the size and placement of the images
* Literary and linguistic features
* How the imagery interacts with the words being used in the ad
* What else the ad does- primarily ads persuade, but does the one in front of you also entertain and/or inform
* The brand name/logo- where is it and how big is it? Are the promoters only advertising the brand or also a lifestyle?
* The context of the ad, including the audience

\
KEY FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS

* **Problem and benefit:** also called *‘benefit and need’*, the success of any advert depends upon appealing to the desires of its readers.
* **Image:** a major component of modern advertising, images often tell *visual narratives*, or employ tactics such as ‘shock value’ or ‘sex sells.’
* **Slogan and copy:** as the image is so important in ads, text is kept to a minimum. Slogans should be *short, catchy, memorable* and should have a relationship with the image; this is called *anchoring*. Look for *typographical features* such as bold fonts, underlined words and the like.
* **Association:** ads sell products… but also sell *values*. You should be alert to the *abstract concepts* that the advert is associating with its product and brand. Understand that objects, settings, people and so on are *symbolic*.
* **Testimonial:** adverts often include the satisfied *quotations* of customers who already used the product and are delighted with their purchase. Some ads feature *celebrity testimonials.*
* **Advertising claims:** favourites include the use of *weasel words, scientific claims, vague language*, or *bandwagon* claims. There are many more for you to look out for, and you might also keep an eye out for *jargon* which sounds impressive, but doesn’t communicate meaning.
* **Persuasion:** adverts are always persuasive. Even ads that are not trying to sell you a product or service might be asking you to think something, change your behaviour or help someone. Look out for any and all kinds of *persuasive devices* in advertising

Infographics

Consider:

* Visual features, including the connotations of color and the size and placement of the images
* Linguistic features
* How the imagery interacts with the words being used in the infographic
* What else the infographic does- primarily they inform, but does the one in front of you also entertain and/or persuade?
* The possible audience of the infographic
* Where it was published, and how this links with the audience. If online, how is sharing facilitated

\
KEY FEATURES OF INFOGRAPHICS

* **Audience:** normally infographics are designed to reach as *wide* an audience as possible. As always look out for technical language that might indicate a niche audience.
* **Simplification:** the main purpose of infographics is to simplify complex knowledge or data. Look out for all kinds of simplification techniques including *summary*, *bullet points*, images with *captions* and more.
* **Illustrations:** they say a picture is worth a thousand words and nowhere is this more true than in infographics. *Icons* are simplified images that *symbolise* certain ideas from the text.
* **Copy:** infographics are multimodal, meaning there will be some brief text included. Look out for *headlines*, *labels* and **snippets** (brief chunks of text).
* **Structure:** good infographics are little *visual narratives* that tell a simple story, so look out for structural elements that help you decode the *sequence* of events.
* **Design:** infographics are supposed to be eye-catching. *Colour, typography, font* and other *design features* should combine to help you get information and also engage your interest.

Charity Appeals

KEY FEATURES OF CHARITY APPEALS

* **Persuasive:** the purpose of charity adverts is to make the reader take action, probably in the form of money or time. Adjacent to this is the need to raise awareness of social problems. Therefore, look out for all kinds of persuasive rhetorical features in charity appeals.
* **Pathos:** charity ads are likely to be more *emotive* than regular adverts. By appealing to emotions such as *anger, pity, guilt*, *sympathy*, and so on, charity adverts make it more likely that you will want to respond.
* **Hard-hitting:** like conventional advertising, charity appeals rely on *visual* elements to impact the viewer. An effective approach is to use hard-hitting *shock tactics* to spur the reader of this text type into action.
* **Credibility:** charity appeals need to be even more *trustworthy* than regular persuasive texts. Look for information that suggests your donations will make a positive change, perhaps in the form of *facts and statistics*.
* **Metonymy:** social problems like hunger and poverty are too large for one person to help solve; so charity ads often introduce you to a *single individual* who represents all those who your donation goes towards helping.
* **Direct address:** charity ads will often address the reader with the word *‘you’,* striving to make a strong connection. If a person in the advert is making eye contact with you, this is a kind of *visual direct address*.

Recruitment campaigns

KEY FEATURES OF RECRUITMENT CAMPAIGNS

* **Persuasive:** the purpose of a recruitment campaign is to persuade you to sign up to a cause or join an organisation. Recruitment drives are almost certain to use *direct address* and *imperatives*.
* **Visuals:** can be wholly visual, but likely to have some accompanying text (*multi-modal*).
* **Slogans:** text may be minimal or in the form of slogans which are designed to be *catchy*. Pay attention to *typography*, fonts and emphasised words.
* **Pathos:** the core of a campaign is often *emotional*, aiming to elicit feelings such as *patriotism* and *duty* on one hand, or *guilt* if one is not to sign up.
* **Card-stacking:** a common feature of recruitment drives is they often fail to show the downsides of joining up! Ignoring parts of the argument that don’t fit your agenda is called *card-stacking*.
* **Simplification:** along with a host of other fallacies, recruitment campaigns *reduce* complex issues to simple solutions. They may also invoke *stereotypes*.
* **Symbolism:** elements of the text will connote concepts that are integral to the writer’s message. Look out for *metonymy*, where an individual is made to stand for the whole.

Comic strips

KEY FEATURES OF COMIC STRIPS

* **Purpose:** comic strips are often humorous; their primary purpose is to *entertain*. Nevertheless the strip may make a *serious point* about a local or global issue.
* **Structure:** comics and cartoons are drawn in square boxes called *panels*, arranged in sequence and read in a *linear* fashion. The white space between the panels is called *gutters*.
* **Exposition:** text that tells the story is presented as *captions*.
* **Speech and thought bubbles:** so you can read the internal and external *dialogue* of the characters.
* **Mechanics:** *spatial mechanics* is the use of space within and between each frame. *Temporal mechanics* is the way time can be slowed down, sped up or stopped.
* **Artistic style:** comics are drawn purposefully and with intention. Are the pictures crisp, heavy, weighty, light, cartoony, realistic, bright, dark? Can you tell whether the artist used pencil, pen and ink, or brush? Words that describe *mood* and *tone* can be useful when analysing **graphic weight** (*shading and contrast*) and **saturation** (*brightness*).
* **Emanata:** items such as *dots, lines, exclamation marks* or *onomatopoeia* that depict action, emotion or sound.
* **‘Cartoonification’:** how realistic are the images in the cartoon or comic strip? Realism is measured on a spectrum from *photorealistic* or lifelike to *simplified*.
* **Punchline:** especially apparent in four-panel comic strips, the joke is revealed in the last panel.

Magazine Articles

* **Headline:** *bold text* that reveals the topic of the article and should provide a *hook* for the reader.
* **Images:** *photographs* of people and places are common features of magazine articles. They are almost always *posed*, not natural, and are often as prominent as the copy.
* **Layout:** look out for *box-outs, bullet points, ears* and other kinds of layout features.
* **Entertainment:** although they might be topical and current, most magazine articles are designed to entertain. Information may be displayed in an appealing way, using *pull quotes* and *subheadings*.
* **Buzzwords:** being *up-to-date, relevant* and *current* means some articles make use of buzzwords and words that are popular at the time of publication.
* **Interactive Features:** increasingly, articles that would traditionally have been printed in magazines are being published online. In this case, look out for interactive features such as *embedded videos*, *hyperlinks* and *tabs*.
* **Embedded interviews:** experts on or participants in the topic at hand are often interviewed and *quotations* are used throughout the article. In the case of *celebrity articles*, the whole piece could be the write-up of an interview (see below).

Information texts

KEY FEATURES OF INFORMATION TEXTS

* **Neutral language:** aiming to inform above all else, the *register* should be formal or semi-formal, the language accessible and the *tone* neutral.
* **Diction:** some informational texts are aimed at particular readers and employ *technical terms* or *specialist language* – watch out for jargon, which may not communicate clearly.
* **Layout:** these kinds of texts normally have a clear, easy to understand layout. They might use *box-outs, lists, bullet points, page dividers* and other organisational features to help guide you step-by-step through the text. Some informational texts are *non-linear*.
* **Facts and Statistics:** presented in all kinds of ways: percentages; graphs; charts or numbers. Look for *credible sources* that are *cited.*
* **Typography:** look for fonts, capitalisations, bold or italicised words, underlined words, or other features that help emphasise key points.
* **Images:** often in the form of *diagrams*, images should reinforce the written text or be broken into step-by-step guides. They may be *simplified*.
* **Information:** although this goes without saying, you should differentiate between *general information* and *specific details*.