Studied by 1 person
Consider:
The source, its context and ethics
The audience (if online, think global as well as local, as well as considering other demographic details, such as age, income, profession and interests)
Loaded/emotive language
The use of hyperlinks, sharing functions etc (e.g. to social media)
The pragmatics (how context contributes to meaning) of the texts (the writer’s agenda or opinion, (whether implicit or explicit).
Elements of rhetoric: ethos ,logos, pathos
Connections between the structure, purpose and audience (e.g. Short paragraphs may appeal more to people of lower education, or when writing to entertain
KEY FEATURES OF NEWS WRITING
Masthead: a strip across the top of a newspaper front page containing the name of the newspaper, the date of publication and the price. Tabloid papers from the UK are called ‘red-tops’ because of the red colour of the masthead.
Headline: the choice of words in a headline is essential to the tone and angle of the story. There are many techniques involved in creating headlines and you should definitely learn: slammer; pun; alliteration; elliptical headlines (which only include the keywords).
Visuals: all newspapers make use of photographs to accompany stories. Tabloid papers are dominated by images while broadsheet papers tend to use smaller photographs. Look out for pictures of people’s faces, which reveal emotion and create bias.
Copy: the main text of the article. Features you should be on the look out for are: sensationalism; vague language; emotive language and euphemism.
Embedded interviews: you can expect to find witness recounts, expert opinions and statements from authority figures in almost all newspaper reports.
Bias: all kinds of bias exist in newspaper reports, from selection bias (the choice of what content to include and what to exclude) to name-calling, to the use of certain facts and statistics and more.
Figurative Language: anyone who still thinks the news is purely factual needs to go back to the start of the course! News reports are a rich source of metaphor, simile, hyperbole, sensationalism, and exaggeration, often distorting reality in some way.
Consider:
The source, its context and ethics
The audience( if online, think global as well as local, as well as considering other demographic details, such as age, income, profession and interests.
Loaded/emotive language
The pragmatics of the text( the writer’s agenda or opinion, whether implicit or explicit).
What does the writer(= the editor of the publication) aim to convince readers of?
Consider:
The formality of the text, and the reason for this ( a diary entry by a WWI soldier might have quite a different register than a 21st cent. Blog entry)
The emotions portrayed, and the techniques ( literary and linguistic) used to achieve this.
The sequencing and control of the narration
If there is an audience, and if so, who is this audience and how are they addressed
The date at the top of the entry, this will give you some context.
Any sharing facilities on a blog
The public nature of the blogs v the private nature of a traditional diary
KEY FEATURES OF BLOGS
Viewpoint: blogs normally represent the interests and opinions of an individual, so are normally first person.
Purpose: Blogs are guided by individual interests or concerns so the purpose is flexible. A blog might seek to inform readers about an area of interest, topic or movement. They may also discuss an event or issue. Blogs might even function like an online diary, describing the day’s events and reflecting on an experience.
Diction: depending on the topic, writers of blogs could employ a specialist vocabulary or use technical terms.
Visuals: blogs may illustrate the text with cartoons, images or photographs (perhaps illustrated or taken by the writers themselves).
Structure: again dependent on the individual text, but you can look out for chronological and linear structures with subheadings, clear connectives or other features helping organise the text.
KEY FEATURES OF DIARIES
Viewpoint: as one of the most personal text types, diaries are written in the first person and always express thoughts and feelings.
Perspective: diaries are written to be private as the reader and writer are the same person. Confessional is a particular form of diary writing that reveals a secret.
Structure: diaries function as records of the day’s events and are largely chronological. Look out for flashbacks when the writer begins at the end, then goes back to explore how and why an event happened.
Register and tone: most diaries are written in an informal or semi-formal register, using language the writer feels comfortable with. Look out for language which reveals the attitude of the writer (tone): it is not uncommon for diaries to be thoughtful and reflective, scathing and caustic… or anything in between.
Colloquialism: the writer might write as if he or she is talking and may use figures of speech in an original or entertaining way.
Consider:
The context of the outlet(e.g the political beliefs it promotes, even if only roughly- The Telegraph for example, is more on the right-wing side)
The cartoonist’s agenda- what are they trying to criticize through their satire?
The shape of the speech bubbles
Any emanata (unrealistic pictorial elements emanating from a character, symbolizes something from the character) that are used( e.g sweat, tears)
The text size in the speech bubbles, particularly in proportion to those of any other characters speaking.
The amount of speech one character has compared to another.
Artistic techniques and how they support the text
KEY FEATURES OF SATIRICAL CARTOONS
Purpose: satirical or political cartoons aim to satirise; this means they ridicule, lampoon or criticise a specific target which may be a person, group of people or a particular decision or viewpoint.
Irony: meaning when one’s actions contradict one’s words. Look out for people in cartoons saying one thing and doing another.
Caricature: people are simplified, exaggerated or distorted for effect. An element of caricature may be synecdoche, whereby a part of something is made to stand for the whole.
Symbolism: objects, icons and even colours have specific associations. Sometimes items are labelled in the text to help the reader make associations.
Allusion: the cartoon may refer to historical or political events outside the text. The success of an allusion depends on the reader’s ability to recognise it.
Tone: scathing, sarcastic, pointed, or critical are some of the words you might use to describe the tone of satirical cartoons.
Consider:
The dual purpose( inform and persuade)
The provision of step by step guidance, add the structural elements that go with this(e.g.bullet points),as well as the significance of this.
The use of linguistic features such as imperative verbs (command verbs)
The size,placement and connotation of images
The tone( usually authoritative)
Consider:
The level of formality
The potential use of slang and abbreviations( IDK,LOL, BTW)
The use of emoticons/emojis
Syntax (Sentence structure)
The purpose of the replies( to advise, to criticize, agree…)
The length of the responses
The potential lack of paragraphs
The public/online forum and the ability to share responses
The use of usernames and avatars, and what these may connote
Consider:
The level of formality( likely very high, but not always, it can depend on the prestige of the journal)
The audience( interest-wise and in terms of their level of education)
The subject matter
The purpose of the text
KEY FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES
Informative: the purpose of scientific writing is to share knowledge, so look out for informative features such as facts and statistics and clear explanations. Some articles will also simplify concepts for a more general readership.
Diction: inevitably, writing about science and nature will involve using a specialist vocabulary of technical and precise terms.
Comparisons: some scientific concepts are quite abstract or complex, so writers of scientific articles might use similes and comparisons to make them easier for a wider readership to visualise.
Visuals: photographs, diagrams, charts and graphs are all likely to accompany and illustrate scientific concepts. Look out for more examples of simplification.
Credibility: research, authoritative sources, and quotations by experts make far-out concepts more credible.
Structure: look out for both linear and non-linear structures and layouts, depending on the content. A text might provide a timeline or historical overview. Boxouts, summaries, explainers, glossaries can all help communicate complicated ideas.
Consider:
The level of formality and amount of detail
The potential use of a star rating or mark out of 5
The outlet’s audience( e.g. interests, level of education)
The context of the source(e.g.it may be worth discussing a TripAdvisory review in the context of the well publicised ‘fake reviews’ scandal)
Linguistic elements such as semantics and pragmatics (how context contributes to meaning)
KEY FEATURES OF OPINION COLUMNS
Perspective: as an expression of a personal viewpoint, the first person is most commonly adopted for opinion pieces. Look out for ‘we’ instead of ‘I’ – a clever way of implying the viewpoint is commonly held.
Solid Arguments: an opinion piece might open your eyes to the reality of an issue, providing facts, statistics and information to help convince you of the writer’s viewpoint. Expect to see opinions backed up by studies, research or evidence of some kind. Keep an eye out for assertion, though, where a writer presents an opinion as if it were a fact.
Anecdotes: sometimes a writer will relate a small story from his or her personal experience in order to demonstrate a thoughtful approach to the topic at hand. You may find the opinion piece begins with this story, which acts as a kind of hook into the main article.
Structure: the writer of an opinion piece is not trying to keep you in suspense and the opinion is often obvious from the title or first few lines of the article. The rest of the article should support or develop the writer’s point in a number of ways. The ending should be strong and certain, perhaps reiterating the writer’s position.
Register and tone: you should be especially alert to the writer’s choices in this regard. Opinion pieces are often formal, but the writer may adopt an irreverent tone, be passionate, conversational, friendly, challenging, even sarcastic depending on the tactics used to convince you of a particular opinion.
Concession: although similar in many ways, opinion pieces are not quite the same as persuasive speeches, so the writer is not necessarily trying to change your opinion. In this case, you might find concessions to the other side of the argument or even an acknowledgement that the writer’s opinion is flawed in some way.
Consider:
The level of formality(= register)
The audience involved
The context of the speech( historical or otherwise)
Any use of rhetoric(ethos,logos,pathos,anaphora,repetition,second person, etc)
The purpose( persuade + maybe inform and/or entertain)
KEY FEATURES OF SPEECHES
Ethos: the speaker establishes his or her credibility and may allude to a moral, social or spiritual leader with whom the audience cannot disagree.
Logos: clear, reasonable arguments, facts and statistics and quoting experts in the field are all ways of establishing a logical appeal.
Pathos: emotive language and imagery are ways of helping the audience empathise with the feelings of other – often vulnerable – people.
Persuasive: the speaker attempts to make his or her listener think in a certain way, believe something or take action.
Direct address: the speaker tries to draw closer to the listeners by addressing them as ‘you’ – look out for the use of ‘we’ or*‘us’* to include the speaker and listener on the same side – and be wary of attempts to compliment the listener.
Modality: modal verbs are small but important words (such as ‘must’, ‘need’, ‘should’, ‘might,’ and so on) that reveal the speaker’s degree of certainty and strength of feeling. You can study modality here.
Rhetorical devices: all kinds of rhythmical, structural, auditory and linguistic tricks can be employed by a skilled speaker. They are too many to list here, but rhetorical strategies can be studied and learned.
Logical Fallacies: also called ‘argumentation fallacies.’ Common fallacies in speeches are glittering generalisations, simplification and slippery slope.
Consider:
The level of formality ( likely, but not always quite low)
Visual and typographical features(e.g. The blue tick)
The use of rhetorical devices
The use of other linguistic features, such as imperative verbs
The tone of the tweet(s) in question
Who is tweeting
The nature of the replies to the tweets themselves
The nature of Twitter as a platform(e.g. Ephemeral, but with the potential to go viral)
Consider:
The stylistic features identifying the document as a letter or email(e.g. Salutation, time stamp)
The level of formality
Linguistic features, such as slang or imperative verbs
The purpose of the text
The length of the paragraphs and sentences,and the possible significance of these choices
The relationship between the writer and the reader
The urgency of the text( normally more pronounced in emails due to the very nature of them) is this expressed implicitly or explicitly
KEY FEATURES OF LETTERS
Name and address: formal letters are posted to the recipient, so they normally contain both the sender and receiver’s address, allowing the recipient to reply. The sender’s address is traditionally placed on the right hand side, with the date below it.
Purpose: people send letters for all kinds of reasons; to complain, to seek advice, to connect with a loved one or even to pass gossip. The purpose of this text type is completely flexible.
Register: letters can be formal or informal depending on the purpose and relationship between the sender and receiver. The tone can vary widely too: compare a formal letter of complaint with an intimate letter between lovers.
Salutation: a direct address to the recipient. Depending on context, they can vary from the formal ‘Dear…’ or even ‘To whom this may concern…’ to a quick ‘Hi…’
Sign off: you can tell a lot about the relationship between the reader and the writer from the way the letter ends. Formally, ‘yours sincerely’ is used if the recipient’s name was used and ‘yours faithfully’ is used when the writer does not know the name of the receiver. Non-conventional sign-offs can be used for a variety of reasons; check the end of the letter to see if the writer expects a reply.
Consider:
The form: embedded or transcript?
How, where and when we can detect changes in tone or register( between the journalist and the interviewee, for instance) and why this may occur
The use of anecdotes
The use of leading questions and what this may tell us about the interviewer’s agenda
The possible audience of the interview( based on, for example: in what publication has it been printed? Who is the interviewee? Who, age, interest or geography-wise, might be the fans of this person? Is the interview published on a web page?)
KEY FEATURES OF INTERVIEWS
Question-Answer: a recognisable feature of interviews in this format, which presents the questions asked and responses using quotations (direct speech).
Register: as a record of a spoken conversation, a written interview is likely to contain examples of language that is more like speech. Look out for colloquialisms, idioms, contractions and even jokes.
Quotation: as an alternative to the question-answer format, you might see interviews written up as a magazine article. In this case you will see a mixture of direct quotation and indirect free speech.
Topics: the interview may be focused on one issue or may range across various topics. Look out for the interviewer asking leading questions to take the conversation in a particular direction.
Perspective: the interview presents a one-sided view on a topic or person, so is likely to be highly subjective. The interviewee may use assertive statements which present opinions as if they are facts.
Them-and-us: celebrity interviews tend to put interviewees on a pedestal. Look for ways in which the text creates a divide between celebrities and ‘us’, the reader, or represents the interviewee as special in some way.
Consider:
Visual features, including the connotations of color and the size and placement of the images
Literary and linguistic features
How the imagery interacts with the words being used in the ad
What else the ad does- primarily ads persuade, but does the one in front of you also entertain and/or inform
The brand name/logo- where is it and how big is it? Are the promoters only advertising the brand or also a lifestyle?
The context of the ad, including the audience
KEY FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS
Problem and benefit: also called ‘benefit and need’, the success of any advert depends upon appealing to the desires of its readers.
Image: a major component of modern advertising, images often tell visual narratives, or employ tactics such as ‘shock value’ or ‘sex sells.’
Slogan and copy: as the image is so important in ads, text is kept to a minimum. Slogans should be short, catchy, memorable and should have a relationship with the image; this is called anchoring. Look for typographical features such as bold fonts, underlined words and the like.
Association: ads sell products… but also sell values. You should be alert to the abstract concepts that the advert is associating with its product and brand. Understand that objects, settings, people and so on are symbolic.
Testimonial: adverts often include the satisfied quotations of customers who already used the product and are delighted with their purchase. Some ads feature celebrity testimonials.
Advertising claims: favourites include the use of weasel words, scientific claims, vague language, or bandwagon claims. There are many more for you to look out for, and you might also keep an eye out for jargon which sounds impressive, but doesn’t communicate meaning.
Persuasion: adverts are always persuasive. Even ads that are not trying to sell you a product or service might be asking you to think something, change your behaviour or help someone. Look out for any and all kinds of persuasive devices in advertising
Consider:
Visual features, including the connotations of color and the size and placement of the images
Linguistic features
How the imagery interacts with the words being used in the infographic
What else the infographic does- primarily they inform, but does the one in front of you also entertain and/or persuade?
The possible audience of the infographic
Where it was published, and how this links with the audience. If online, how is sharing facilitated
KEY FEATURES OF INFOGRAPHICS
Audience: normally infographics are designed to reach as wide an audience as possible. As always look out for technical language that might indicate a niche audience.
Simplification: the main purpose of infographics is to simplify complex knowledge or data. Look out for all kinds of simplification techniques including summary, bullet points, images with captions and more.
Illustrations: they say a picture is worth a thousand words and nowhere is this more true than in infographics. Icons are simplified images that symbolise certain ideas from the text.
Copy: infographics are multimodal, meaning there will be some brief text included. Look out for headlines, labels and snippets (brief chunks of text).
Structure: good infographics are little visual narratives that tell a simple story, so look out for structural elements that help you decode the sequence of events.
Design: infographics are supposed to be eye-catching. Colour, typography, font and other design features should combine to help you get information and also engage your interest.
KEY FEATURES OF CHARITY APPEALS
Persuasive: the purpose of charity adverts is to make the reader take action, probably in the form of money or time. Adjacent to this is the need to raise awareness of social problems. Therefore, look out for all kinds of persuasive rhetorical features in charity appeals.
Pathos: charity ads are likely to be more emotive than regular adverts. By appealing to emotions such as anger, pity, guilt, sympathy, and so on, charity adverts make it more likely that you will want to respond.
Hard-hitting: like conventional advertising, charity appeals rely on visual elements to impact the viewer. An effective approach is to use hard-hitting shock tactics to spur the reader of this text type into action.
Credibility: charity appeals need to be even more trustworthy than regular persuasive texts. Look for information that suggests your donations will make a positive change, perhaps in the form of facts and statistics.
Metonymy: social problems like hunger and poverty are too large for one person to help solve; so charity ads often introduce you to a single individual who represents all those who your donation goes towards helping.
Direct address: charity ads will often address the reader with the word ‘you’, striving to make a strong connection. If a person in the advert is making eye contact with you, this is a kind of visual direct address.
KEY FEATURES OF RECRUITMENT CAMPAIGNS
Persuasive: the purpose of a recruitment campaign is to persuade you to sign up to a cause or join an organisation. Recruitment drives are almost certain to use direct address and imperatives.
Visuals: can be wholly visual, but likely to have some accompanying text (multi-modal).
Slogans: text may be minimal or in the form of slogans which are designed to be catchy. Pay attention to typography, fonts and emphasised words.
Pathos: the core of a campaign is often emotional, aiming to elicit feelings such as patriotism and duty on one hand, or guilt if one is not to sign up.
Card-stacking: a common feature of recruitment drives is they often fail to show the downsides of joining up! Ignoring parts of the argument that don’t fit your agenda is called card-stacking.
Simplification: along with a host of other fallacies, recruitment campaigns reduce complex issues to simple solutions. They may also invoke stereotypes.
Symbolism: elements of the text will connote concepts that are integral to the writer’s message. Look out for metonymy, where an individual is made to stand for the whole.
KEY FEATURES OF COMIC STRIPS
Purpose: comic strips are often humorous; their primary purpose is to entertain. Nevertheless the strip may make a serious point about a local or global issue.
Structure: comics and cartoons are drawn in square boxes called panels, arranged in sequence and read in a linear fashion. The white space between the panels is called gutters.
Exposition: text that tells the story is presented as captions.
Speech and thought bubbles: so you can read the internal and external dialogue of the characters.
Mechanics: spatial mechanics is the use of space within and between each frame. Temporal mechanics is the way time can be slowed down, sped up or stopped.
Artistic style: comics are drawn purposefully and with intention. Are the pictures crisp, heavy, weighty, light, cartoony, realistic, bright, dark? Can you tell whether the artist used pencil, pen and ink, or brush? Words that describe mood and tone can be useful when analysing graphic weight (shading and contrast) and saturation (brightness).
Emanata: items such as dots, lines, exclamation marks or onomatopoeia that depict action, emotion or sound.
‘Cartoonification’: how realistic are the images in the cartoon or comic strip? Realism is measured on a spectrum from photorealistic or lifelike to simplified.
Punchline: especially apparent in four-panel comic strips, the joke is revealed in the last panel.
Headline: bold text that reveals the topic of the article and should provide a hook for the reader.
Images: photographs of people and places are common features of magazine articles. They are almost always posed, not natural, and are often as prominent as the copy.
Layout: look out for box-outs, bullet points, ears and other kinds of layout features.
Entertainment: although they might be topical and current, most magazine articles are designed to entertain. Information may be displayed in an appealing way, using pull quotes and subheadings.
Buzzwords: being up-to-date, relevant and current means some articles make use of buzzwords and words that are popular at the time of publication.
Interactive Features: increasingly, articles that would traditionally have been printed in magazines are being published online. In this case, look out for interactive features such as embedded videos, hyperlinks and tabs.
Embedded interviews: experts on or participants in the topic at hand are often interviewed and quotations are used throughout the article. In the case of celebrity articles, the whole piece could be the write-up of an interview (see below).
KEY FEATURES OF INFORMATION TEXTS
Neutral language: aiming to inform above all else, the register should be formal or semi-formal, the language accessible and the tone neutral.
Diction: some informational texts are aimed at particular readers and employ technical terms or specialist language – watch out for jargon, which may not communicate clearly.
Layout: these kinds of texts normally have a clear, easy to understand layout. They might use box-outs, lists, bullet points, page dividers and other organisational features to help guide you step-by-step through the text. Some informational texts are non-linear.
Facts and Statistics: presented in all kinds of ways: percentages; graphs; charts or numbers. Look for credible sources that are cited.
Typography: look for fonts, capitalisations, bold or italicised words, underlined words, or other features that help emphasise key points.
Images: often in the form of diagrams, images should reinforce the written text or be broken into step-by-step guides. They may be simplified.
Information: although this goes without saying, you should differentiate between general information and specific details.
