LING 2P51 Final Exam

perceptual domain

* using your knowledge to interpret and understand how language is processed and produced
* knowing info surrounding how speech sounds are made as well as knowing info about certain branches of linguistics that are relevant

informational domain

* knowledge based
* take info we know and use and perceive it in a way where we can assess others and understand speech

24 contexts in which perceptual skills are needed in speech evaluation/ assessments

homo sapiens

only tetrapod known to speak

tetrapods

vertebrate animals having four feet, legs or leglike appendages

why do we not know when the first larynges and vocal folds evolved

soft tissues cannot fossilize (ex. brain and vocal tract)

brain size and cognition

brain size is a poor predictor for animals cognitive capabilities

Which bone of the larynx can be fossilized?

Hyoid bone

* said to be almost indistinguishable form that of the the modern human
* possible relevance to speech

Which ancestor is said to of possibly spoken?

Neanderthals

Chimpanzee vs human brain growth at birth

* Chimpanzee brain growth slows at birth
* Human brains continue to grow rapidly

source

vocal folds vibration (larynx)

filter

the vocal tract that changes in shape and size, thereby modifying the sound

* allows some frequencies to pass through while suppressing others

harmonics

range of components at other frequencies

F0 fundamental frequency

* basic rate of vocal folds during voiced speech


* perceived as vocal pitch (measured in hertz)

humans lack ____ that exist in other primates

large air sacs

formants are a result of

… resonance

resonance

tendency of things to oscillate in response to sound

F1

formant 1 (lowest)

F2

formant 2 (higher)

large air sacs

* play a role in nonhuman vocalizations
* absence may help humans speech production mechanisms work more effectively

humans have a longer ___

supra laryngeal vocal tract (SLVT)

* due to the larynx being much lower

dolphin communication

* evidence of language like behaviours
* have their own distinct whistle
* developed a way of naming themselves for social purposes

4 levels of linguistic complexity

1. isolation
2. word
3. sentences
4. continuous/ spontaneous speech

2 levels of response complexity

1. single sound in each word
2. multiple sounds in each word

Phonetic transcription

represents exactly what a child says

* broad or narrow

2 way scoring

correct or incorrect

4 wrong categories

1. deletion/ omission
2. substitution
3. distortion
4. addition

3 levels of system complexity

* 2 way scoring
* 5 way scoring
* phonetic transcription

5 way scoring

1 correct category, 4 wrong categories

How do we explain the use of speech in humans but not other extant primates?

* vocal anatomy: position of the larynx (hyoid bone)
* brain: structure and capabilities, vocal mimetic abilities

other animals make sounds for…

* defense
* competition for food
* mating
* other social purposes (bonding, sharing)

parallel evolution

vocal sound making developed in 2 parallel, independent ways


1. mammals - primates - humans
2. reptiles - birds

indicates vocal sound making has a survival value for organisms

sryinx

voice box of birds

* consists of membranes that vibrate
* sits and the junction of the bronchi

language general perception

* infants are born with the ability to distinguish most of the contrasts of the worlds languages
* adults have difficulty with unfamiliar sound contrast

categorical change procedure

* Adults sit in a sound attenuated booth
* Hears pa pa pa ba ba
* Press button when sound changes

language specific perception

* Capabilities change as we get older, contrasting sounds that do not occur in our native languages may no longer be distinguishable
* Change occurs at 6-12 months

why does language perception change from general to specific?

there is no reason to distinguish between sounds that do not cause phonemic differences in your language

head turning procedure

* Auditory stimuli: ba ba ba pa pa
* When auditory stimuli changes, baby is coerced to turn their head towards a toy, flashing light, etc.
* Eventually they do not use the toy/light when the sound changes
* if baby still turns their head we can conclude the child can perceive the difference

when does hearing develop

in utero

* babies can recognize their mothers voices, test this by listening to heart rate

4 types of cries

1. quick rise, slow fall
2. slow rise, quick fall
3. symmetrical rise and fall
4. steady

4 articulation errors

1. deletion
2. insertion
3. substitution
4. distortion

effects of aging on voice

Male: F0 gets lower with age

Female: F0 gets lower at age 50 compared to younger women

what makes you sound like you

1. Organic factors (length/mass of vocal folds, size/shape of vocal tract, biological endowment)
2. Learned factors (social, how SLVT is used for articulation, dialect)

phonation types

* Breathing (no phonation)
* Breathy voice
* Whispering
* Normal voicing
* Creaky voice
* Falsetto

accent

distance from target (“normal” Canadian accent)

comprehensibility

* How much effort a listener puts into understanding someone (semantically)
* The processing ability of the meaning

intelligibility

* Refers to comprehension and understandability
* Can the listener understand what the speaker is saying

acceptability

making someone speak with an acceptable accent

* controversial topic

factors that influence L2 production

1. l1 influence
2. experience
3. attention

instrumental motivation

motivation because you need the skill for work

integrative motivation

motivation because you need the skill to socialize

does orthography play a role in L2 learning

* yes
* may bias or distort perception/ attention

attention during L2 learning

* Distractions shift attention away from acoustic signals and learning opportunities are lost
* cannot multitask (brain is just switching back and forth between tasks)

categories of speech disorders

* voice disorders (larynx)
* articulation disorders (tongue control)
* phonological disorders
* fluency disorders (stuttering)

causes of speech disorders

* congenital malformation (born)
* disease
* accidents/ injury (TBI, stroke, vocal overuse)
* surgery (removal)
* behaviour related problems (autism)
* idiopathic causes (unexplainable)

stuttering

the involuntary repetition, interruption, and prolongation of speech sounds and syllables, which the individual struggles to end

stuttering etiology

Poorly understood and controversial

* neurophysiology dysfunction that disrupts the timing needed for speech
* genetic basis: occurs more commonly in identical twins (77%) than fraternal (23%)

lexical filled pauses

like, so, I think

non lexical filled pauses

um, er, uh

* um: you know what you want to say but trying to articulate it properly
* uh: you don't know what your talking about/wanting to say

fluent speech is characterized by

* smooth, comfortable tempo
* Appropriate pausing
* Few false starts, repairs, and repetitions

cluttering

* Rapid or irregular speaking rage with long breaks and spurts of speech
* Poorly planned utterances; speaker is often unaware of impairment

developmental dysfluency

repetitions of whole words

pathological dysfluency

repetitions of word parts and prolongations of sounds

stuttering diagnosis

* Many children stutter; most but not all recover
* Important to distinguish between normal developmental dysfluency and pathological dysfluency

stuttering treatment

* Timed syllabic speech
* Shadowing
* Delayed auditory feedback
* Other systematic therapies

which came first speech or writing

speech

hominin

humans and human like ancestors

central processes of speech

Events associated with the central nervous system that are involved in perception and production of utterances

peripheral processes of speech

Events associated with structures outside the central nervous system (ie. ears) that are involved in the perception and production of utterances

orthography

a writing system for representing language

supralaryngeal vocal tract (SLVT)

Structures above the larynx used ins perch production (pharyngeal, oral, and nasal cavities)

dialect

Language variety associated with a particular community of speakers

vocal timbre

Features of the voice that distinguish it from other voices (ie. soprano, tenor)

neuroplasticity

Capability of neural pathways of the brain to develop and reorganize, particularly as a result of new learning or experience

high amplitude sucking (HAS)

Tendency for infancy to suck a pacifier more rapidly when exposed to new auditory stimuli

dysarthria

motoric dysfunction that impairs speech in a variety of ways

* sounds are repeated and prolonged
* short breathy voice
* strained voice
* audible inspiration
* variable rate with short rushes of speech

dysarthria treatment

* breathing capacity and breath control
* control over loudness and pitch
* velo-pharyngeal control
* management of speech rate

Broca’s aphasia

* non fluent aphasia
* speech production is difficult
* individual words or short phrases
* function words omitted
* language comprehension usually good

Wernicke’s aphasia

* fluent aphasia
* no trouble producing long sentences
* utterances make no sense
* unnecessary or made up words
* difficulty understanding the speech of others = receptive aphasia

aphasia treatment

* melodic intonation therapy
* reading
* syntax
* word-finding
* writing

language impairment based treatment

diverse range of treatments for aphasia patients based on the individuals specific needs and difficulties

cleft palate

* Disturbance in palate/ lip development during the early part of gestation  
* Runs in families  
* Certain risk factors in mother
* Smoking, diabetes, substance use, certain medications  


* Often non-syndromic (an isolated issue for the child)  
* can have an increased risk of ear infections  

cleft palate treatment

* surgery followed by therapy

SLP therapy

* Infants: feeding and swallowing assessment 


* Toddlers and older children: assessment therapy for  
* VPI: velopharyngeal insufficiency (causes hypernasality)
* Other articulations
* Phonation difficulties

lisp

popular term that is improperly used to refer to a number of different articulations

* ex. refer to problems producing /s/ and /z/

laryngectomy

removal of larynx (complete or partial) due to cancer, GE reflux, injury, other diseases

stoma

opening in throat after a procedure

electro-larynx

* a device that you hold up to your neck (larynx)
* when you push a button on the device, it produces a vibration that is transferred through the skin to the throat
* you then articulate the sound with your SLVT

in-dwelling prosthesis

a valve that allows you to make sounds by pushing air from your lungs through the valve and up into your mouth to be articulated

Aspects of speech that identify someone as a second language speaker

* accent is a normal aspect of L2 acquisition
* accents are highly noticeable
* accents can have both positive and negative effects on communication

aspects of a foreign accent

* Segmental (individual consonants, vowels)
* Suprasegmental (stress, rhythm, intonation)
* Voice quality and use of SLVT
* Non-nativelike use of pitch, nasality, retroflection of tongue

negative effects of foreign accents on communication

* negative social evaluation that happens in the mind of the listener that may have a negative view of foreigners (not accent itself)
* communication difficulties which result in loss of speaker intelligibility (frustrating and embarrassing)

positive effects of foreign accents on communication

* Conversational adjustments from interlocutors = “foreigner talk”

caregiver speech

* simplified vocabulary and syntax
* clearer enunciation with less reduction

major goal of second language instruction

to help learners communicate effectively with their peers in their L2

perceptual dimensions for L2 speech evaluation

* accentedness (perceived difference)
* comprehensibility (listener effort)
* intelligibility (how much is understood)

accentedness

degree of difference from the target speech sounds

high functional load

* sounds that distinguish a large number of words from other words
* many minimal pairs
* high-frequency words
* the focus should be on learning the distinctions between these sounds and words
* ex. l and r (rock vs. lock/ write vs. light)

low functional load

* sounds that distinguish relatively fewer words from other words
* few minimal pairs
* uncommon words
* ex. th and f (three vs free/ think vs. fink/ threw vs. frew)

individual variability (problem with pronunciation instruction in the classroom)

* learners often do not share the same areas of difficulty EVEN when they have the same L1

zoom principle

* learning more broad and then becoming more narrow


* start with general speaking patterns and suprasegmentals
* vowels are more important than consonants
* functional load
* wouldn’t focus on the sounds because they aren’t as important as l and r
* focus on common vowels (not vowel in book /ʊ/)