PSY1101 Exam 2023

The Scientific Method

1. Identify the problem
2. gather information
3. generate a hypothesis
4. design and conduct experiments
5. analyze data and formulate conclusions
6. restart process

Naturalistic observation

Observation as it happens without an attempt to manipulate or control the subjects environment

field experiment

experiment takes place in the real world

case study

in-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual.

hippocampus

plays a role in the transfer of memories to long term memory

entorhinal cortex

found in the temporal lobe and plays a role in behavior and memory.

procedural memories

memories that pertain to how something is done (i.e., riding a bike)

surveys

a method using questions to collect information on how people think or act. Quick way to collect lots of information.

sample

subset of a population

sampling error

a sample that deviates from a true representation of a population

bias

an unfair or unequal representation of a person or thing

response bias

the tendency for people to answer the questions the way they feel they are expected to answer

acquiescent response bias

the tendency for participants to agree or respond “yes” to all questions regardless of their actual opinions. (“yea-saying”)

socially desirable bias

participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as notable by others (i.e., people wont openly admit to illegal acts)

illusory superiority

the tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Study to follow the natural progression of syphilis. They infected African American men. Study lasted 40yrs and denied participants medical treatment even though there were advancements in the treatment of syphilis.

5 ethical principals of research

1. Beneficence and non-maleficence
2. Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Integrity
4. Justice
5. Respect for rights and dignity

beneficence

Principle states that research should strive to do good

Maleficence

Avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm participants

Fidelity and Responsibility

The ethical principle of developing trusting relationships between researchers and participants

Integrity

An ethical principle that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.

Justice

An ethical principle in research where those people who participate in research should get the benefits of the research. (if they pass a drug then the test group should be the first to get it)

inclusion criteria

an attribute of participants that is necessary to be a part of a research study

exclusion criteria

an attribute of a person that would prevent them from participating in a research study

eligibility criteria

The combination of inclusion and exclusion criteria to create a set of characteristics shared by all participants that ensure that those participating will meaningfully address the research question.

Respect for rights and dignity

An ethical principle where the researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants rights, privacy, and welfare. Also includes confidentiality.

The IRB reviews research studies to make sure they’re ethical by confirming:

1. proposed study will use sound research design
2. risks are minimized
3. benefits outweigh the risks
4. can make informed consent and withdraw whenever
5. safeguards in place to protect the participants
6. all data collected will be confidential

correlation

a measure (denotes as r) that captures the direction and strength of a relationship between variables. Relationship is strong when points are clustered tightly together in a linear relationship.

positive correlation

When variables change in the same direction (i.e., one increases and the other does as well)

negative correlation

When variables are opposite (i.e., as one increases the other decreases).

zero correlation

two variables exhibit no apparent relationship

Correlation coefficient

A numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (denoted as r). Ranges from -1 to +1 (sign indicates direction of correlation). A perfect positive is +1, no relationship is 0, and a perfect negative is -1)

extraneous/confounding variables

variables that are not the focus of the study but they influence the outcome if they are not controlled.

What is the best placebo?

a) a white pill is more effective than a blue pill

b) a needle is more effective than a capsule

c) a letter on a white pill is more effective than a capsule

d) a blue pill is more effective than a capsule

b) a needle is more effective than a capsule

descriptive statistics

a collection of ways to describe the data in the simplest way, which involves quantitative values.

types of central tendency

mean (average), median (middle), and mode (most frequently reoccurring number)

What is a disadvantage of using the mean as central tendency?

It can be affected by outliers

neuron

cells that communicate with the brain to form thoughts and actions. Cell codes info through electrical signals.

glial cells

perform numerous support functions in the nervous system

dendrites

extensions of the cell body membrane that branch out to communicate with other neurons

neurotransmitter

chemicals released from the end of an axon that acts as messages to other neurons and body parts. Chemicals bind to receptors

receptors (neurons)

proteins that are embedded in the cell body to receive chemical messages from neurotransmitters

soma

The cell body of a neuron, contains the organelles and controls the metabolic processing for the cell

axon hillock

The intersection between the soma and the axon. This is where the axon begins.

axon

a long, narrow, projection from the cell body

axon terminals

part of the axon that releases the neurotransmitter. Once the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter.

terminal buttons

the very edge of the axon terminal, where the neurotransmitter exits

vesicles

little bubbles at the terminal button that store neurotransmitter molecules.

presynaptic neuron

portion of the neuron that releases the neurotransmitter into the synapse

synaptic cleft

the space between the end of the neuron that releases a neurotransmitter (axon terminal) and the end of the receiving neuron (dendrite).

synapse

small fluid-filled gap between neurons into which neurotransmitters are released

postsynaptic receptor

the other side of the synapse. The neuron contains receptors ready to bind to the neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron

myelin

a protein and fatty substance that wraps around the axon to PROTECT and INCREASE speed of action potentials

nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin that allow ions to enter the axon

polarize cell state

\-70mV inside the cell. Polarization (-ve) and depolarization (+ve)

Steps to action potential in a neuron

1. small influx of Na+
2. triggering of voltage-sensitive Na+ channels
3. large influx of Na+
4. efflux of K+

oligodendrocytes

glial (helper) cells that wrap the myelin insulation around the axons in the CNS

Schwann cells

Glial (helper) cells that wrap the myelin insulation around the axons in the PNS

astrocytes

glial (helper) cells that help get nutrition to neurons and maintain the balance of ions inside and outside the neuron

microglia

Glial (helper) cells that clean debris and get rid of germs

Central Nervous System (CNS)

composed of the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

all the nerves outside the skull and vertebral column, as well as the specialized sensory endings (i.e., hair cells in the ear)

Somatic Nervous System

contains the neurons and nerves that control the muscles for voluntary movement and bring sensory info back to the brain from the body.

pons

a network of cells in the brain stem that regulate

* awareness/alertness
* sleep
* motor function

What do the medulla and pons do?

* regulate basic life functions
* connect the PNS and CNS to regulate what we do and what we pay attention to

Medulla

* lowest portion of the brain (transition between brain and spinal cord)
* Vital to support life; damage is fatal

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basal ganglia

Interconnected groups of neurons near the base of the brain that help us:

* learn movements
* coordinate movement patterns

Parts of the basal ganglia

1) dorsal striatum

2) ventral striatum

3) globus pallidus

4) substantia nigra

dorsal and ventral striatum

inputs to the basal ganglia come in

globus pallidus and substantia nigra

send out inhibitory outputs to the thalamus to help integrate sensory and motor information.

What disease is the basal ganglia associated with?

Parkinson’s disease (impaired movement)

cerebellum (“little brain”)

Two-lobed part of the brain posterior to the brain stem that helps:

* movement
* problem-solving

What are the divisions of the cerebellum?

* spinocerebellar (helps match sensory input w/ motor plans to refine movement patterns)
* vestibulocerebellar (processes info form the inner ear to adjust balance)
* cerebrocerebellar (adjusts the timing and planning of movements)

thalamus

the body’s information relay station

temporal lobe

part of the cortex that assists with:

* forming memories
* processing sound input

located on the right side of the brain above the ear

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the corpus callosum

thick bundle of fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and allows them to share info. All sensory info except for olfactory (smell) crosses to the other side of the brain.

split brain

cut the corpus callosum to treat seizures. Patients have trouble seeing an object in the left visual field and naming it. Visual info from the left is processed in the right visual cortex.

Three major endocrine control centers in the CNS

1) hypothalamus - secretes hormones and controls the pituitary gland

2) pineal gland - secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep cycle

3) pituitary gland - secretes hormones that affect sexual behavior, reproduction, circulatory function, hunger, and responses to aggression.

bottom-up processing

the processing of physical messages delivered to the senses.

top-down processing

combine incoming neural message with our own understanding of the world to interpret information in a way that has value

Principle of proximity

objects that are close to one another will be grouped together

The principle of similarity

objects that are physically similar to one another will be grouped together

The laws of Gestalt

Ways of organizing and understanding the world

principle of closure

people tend to perceive whole objects even when part of the information is missing

principle of good continuation

if lines cross each other or are interrupted, people tend to still see continuously flowing lines

principle of common fate

objects that are moving together will be grouped together (i.e., group of birds)

retina

Thin layer of tissues on the back of each eye that contains the photosensitive receptor cells

cornea

The transparent covering of the eye

pupil

The hole in the center of the eye that allows light to enter

iris

The ring of pigmented tissues surrounding the pupil. Responsible for:

* controlling diameter and size of pupil
* controlling amount of light that reaches retina

lens

A flexible piece of tissue located behind the pupil that focuses light on the retina

photoreceptors

Cells that are specifically sensitive to exposure t light. Located at the back of the eye

rods

kind of photoreceptor in the retina; typically most responsive to LOW levels of light

cones

type of photoreceptor in the retina that is responsive to BRIGHT light. Responsible for communicating info about acuity and color

fovea

the portion of the retina directly behind the pupil. Contains a large concentration of CONES and no rods.

diffuse bipolar cells

part of the bipolar layer of the retina. These cells receive signals from rods and send messages to large ganglion cells

midget bipolar cells

Part of the bipolar layer of the retina. These cells receive signals from cones and send their messages to the small ganglion cells

pinna

the external part of the ear

tympanic membrane (eardrum)

transfers energy to the smallest bones of the body (ossicles)

ossicles

3 smallest bones of the body. Responsible for amplifying vibrations arriving at the eardrum and transmitting these signals to the oval window of the cochlea