Studied by 12 peopleThe Scientific Method
Identify the problem
gather information
generate a hypothesis
design and conduct experiments
analyze data and formulate conclusions
restart process
Naturalistic observation
Observation as it happens without an attempt to manipulate or control the subjects environment
field experiment
experiment takes place in the real world
case study
in-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual.
hippocampus
plays a role in the transfer of memories to long term memory
entorhinal cortex
found in the temporal lobe and plays a role in behavior and memory.
procedural memories
memories that pertain to how something is done (i.e., riding a bike)
surveys
a method using questions to collect information on how people think or act. Quick way to collect lots of information.
sample
subset of a population
sampling error
a sample that deviates from a true representation of a population
bias
an unfair or unequal representation of a person or thing
response bias
the tendency for people to answer the questions the way they feel they are expected to answer
acquiescent response bias
the tendency for participants to agree or respond “yes” to all questions regardless of their actual opinions. (“yea-saying”)
socially desirable bias
participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as notable by others (i.e., people wont openly admit to illegal acts)
illusory superiority
the tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Study to follow the natural progression of syphilis. They infected African American men. Study lasted 40yrs and denied participants medical treatment even though there were advancements in the treatment of syphilis.
5 ethical principals of research
Beneficence and non-maleficence
Fidelity and Responsibility
Integrity
Justice
Respect for rights and dignity
beneficence
Principle states that research should strive to do good
Maleficence
Avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm participants
Fidelity and Responsibility
The ethical principle of developing trusting relationships between researchers and participants
Integrity
An ethical principle that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.
Justice
An ethical principle in research where those people who participate in research should get the benefits of the research. (if they pass a drug then the test group should be the first to get it)
inclusion criteria
an attribute of participants that is necessary to be a part of a research study
exclusion criteria
an attribute of a person that would prevent them from participating in a research study
eligibility criteria
The combination of inclusion and exclusion criteria to create a set of characteristics shared by all participants that ensure that those participating will meaningfully address the research question.
Respect for rights and dignity
An ethical principle where the researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants rights, privacy, and welfare. Also includes confidentiality.
The IRB reviews research studies to make sure they’re ethical by confirming:
proposed study will use sound research design
risks are minimized
benefits outweigh the risks
can make informed consent and withdraw whenever
safeguards in place to protect the participants
all data collected will be confidential
correlation
a measure (denotes as r) that captures the direction and strength of a relationship between variables. Relationship is strong when points are clustered tightly together in a linear relationship.
positive correlation
When variables change in the same direction (i.e., one increases and the other does as well)
negative correlation
When variables are opposite (i.e., as one increases the other decreases).
zero correlation
two variables exhibit no apparent relationship
Correlation coefficient
A numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (denoted as r). Ranges from -1 to +1 (sign indicates direction of correlation). A perfect positive is +1, no relationship is 0, and a perfect negative is -1)
extraneous/confounding variables
variables that are not the focus of the study but they influence the outcome if they are not controlled.
What is the best placebo?
a) a white pill is more effective than a blue pill
b) a needle is more effective than a capsule
c) a letter on a white pill is more effective than a capsule
d) a blue pill is more effective than a capsule
b) a needle is more effective than a capsule
descriptive statistics
a collection of ways to describe the data in the simplest way, which involves quantitative values.
types of central tendency
mean (average), median (middle), and mode (most frequently reoccurring number)
What is a disadvantage of using the mean as central tendency?
It can be affected by outliers
neuron
cells that communicate with the brain to form thoughts and actions. Cell codes info through electrical signals.
glial cells
perform numerous support functions in the nervous system
dendrites
extensions of the cell body membrane that branch out to communicate with other neurons
neurotransmitter
chemicals released from the end of an axon that acts as messages to other neurons and body parts. Chemicals bind to receptors
receptors (neurons)
proteins that are embedded in the cell body to receive chemical messages from neurotransmitters
soma
The cell body of a neuron, contains the organelles and controls the metabolic processing for the cell
axon hillock
The intersection between the soma and the axon. This is where the axon begins.
axon
a long, narrow, projection from the cell body
axon terminals
part of the axon that releases the neurotransmitter. Once the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter.
terminal buttons
the very edge of the axon terminal, where the neurotransmitter exits
vesicles
little bubbles at the terminal button that store neurotransmitter molecules.
presynaptic neuron
portion of the neuron that releases the neurotransmitter into the synapse
synaptic cleft
the space between the end of the neuron that releases a neurotransmitter (axon terminal) and the end of the receiving neuron (dendrite).
synapse
small fluid-filled gap between neurons into which neurotransmitters are released
postsynaptic receptor
the other side of the synapse. The neuron contains receptors ready to bind to the neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron
myelin
a protein and fatty substance that wraps around the axon to PROTECT and INCREASE speed of action potentials
nodes of Ranvier
gaps in the myelin that allow ions to enter the axon
polarize cell state
-70mV inside the cell. Polarization (-ve) and depolarization (+ve)
Steps to action potential in a neuron
small influx of Na+
triggering of voltage-sensitive Na+ channels
large influx of Na+
efflux of K+
oligodendrocytes
glial (helper) cells that wrap the myelin insulation around the axons in the CNS
Schwann cells
Glial (helper) cells that wrap the myelin insulation around the axons in the PNS
astrocytes
glial (helper) cells that help get nutrition to neurons and maintain the balance of ions inside and outside the neuron
microglia
Glial (helper) cells that clean debris and get rid of germs
Central Nervous System (CNS)
composed of the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
all the nerves outside the skull and vertebral column, as well as the specialized sensory endings (i.e., hair cells in the ear)
Somatic Nervous System
contains the neurons and nerves that control the muscles for voluntary movement and bring sensory info back to the brain from the body.
pons
a network of cells in the brain stem that regulate
awareness/alertness
sleep
motor function
What do the medulla and pons do?
regulate basic life functions
connect the PNS and CNS to regulate what we do and what we pay attention to
Medulla
lowest portion of the brain (transition between brain and spinal cord)
Vital to support life; damage is fatal
basal ganglia
Interconnected groups of neurons near the base of the brain that help us:
learn movements
coordinate movement patterns
Parts of the basal ganglia
dorsal striatum
ventral striatum
globus pallidus
substantia nigra
dorsal and ventral striatum
inputs to the basal ganglia come in
globus pallidus and substantia nigra
send out inhibitory outputs to the thalamus to help integrate sensory and motor information.
What disease is the basal ganglia associated with?
Parkinson’s disease (impaired movement)
cerebellum (“little brain”)
Two-lobed part of the brain posterior to the brain stem that helps:
movement
problem-solving
What are the divisions of the cerebellum?
spinocerebellar (helps match sensory input w/ motor plans to refine movement patterns)
vestibulocerebellar (processes info form the inner ear to adjust balance)
cerebrocerebellar (adjusts the timing and planning of movements)
thalamus
the body’s information relay station
temporal lobe
part of the cortex that assists with:
forming memories
processing sound input
located on the right side of the brain above the ear
the corpus callosum
thick bundle of fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and allows them to share info. All sensory info except for olfactory (smell) crosses to the other side of the brain.
split brain
cut the corpus callosum to treat seizures. Patients have trouble seeing an object in the left visual field and naming it. Visual info from the left is processed in the right visual cortex.
Three major endocrine control centers in the CNS
hypothalamus - secretes hormones and controls the pituitary gland
pineal gland - secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep cycle
pituitary gland - secretes hormones that affect sexual behavior, reproduction, circulatory function, hunger, and responses to aggression.
bottom-up processing
the processing of physical messages delivered to the senses.
top-down processing
combine incoming neural message with our own understanding of the world to interpret information in a way that has value
Principle of proximity
objects that are close to one another will be grouped together
The principle of similarity
objects that are physically similar to one another will be grouped together
The laws of Gestalt
Ways of organizing and understanding the world
principle of closure
people tend to perceive whole objects even when part of the information is missing
principle of good continuation
if lines cross each other or are interrupted, people tend to still see continuously flowing lines
principle of common fate
objects that are moving together will be grouped together (i.e., group of birds)
retina
Thin layer of tissues on the back of each eye that contains the photosensitive receptor cells
cornea
The transparent covering of the eye
pupil
The hole in the center of the eye that allows light to enter
iris
The ring of pigmented tissues surrounding the pupil. Responsible for:
controlling diameter and size of pupil
controlling amount of light that reaches retina
lens
A flexible piece of tissue located behind the pupil that focuses light on the retina
photoreceptors
Cells that are specifically sensitive to exposure t light. Located at the back of the eye
rods
kind of photoreceptor in the retina; typically most responsive to LOW levels of light
cones
type of photoreceptor in the retina that is responsive to BRIGHT light. Responsible for communicating info about acuity and color
fovea
the portion of the retina directly behind the pupil. Contains a large concentration of CONES and no rods.
diffuse bipolar cells
part of the bipolar layer of the retina. These cells receive signals from rods and send messages to large ganglion cells
midget bipolar cells
Part of the bipolar layer of the retina. These cells receive signals from cones and send their messages to the small ganglion cells
pinna
the external part of the ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
transfers energy to the smallest bones of the body (ossicles)
ossicles
3 smallest bones of the body. Responsible for amplifying vibrations arriving at the eardrum and transmitting these signals to the oval window of the cochlea
Note
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