WEATHER & CLIMATE FLASHCARDS- Envs

What is weather?

The sum total of atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation, humidity, pressure, wind) at a specific place and time — a momentary state of the atmosphere.

What is climate?

The average weather (temperature and precipitation) of a region over time and space, usually measured over 30 years or more.

Main difference between weather and climate?

Weather = short-term conditions; Climate = long-term patterns.
“Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.”

What are the key factors that determine Earth’s weather?

Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere — what’s happening right now in terms of temperature, wind, clouds, and rain.
There are five main factors that shape it:

1⃣ Air pressure – the weight of air pressing down on Earth’s surface.

• Low pressure → air rises → clouds and storms.

• High pressure → air sinks → clear, calm weather.

2⃣ Temperature – how hot or cold the air is.

• Determined by how much sunlight the surface absorbs and reradiates.

• Warm air rises, cold air sinks → drives movement in the atmosphere.

3⃣ Humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air.

• High humidity = moist air → more clouds and potential rain.

• Low humidity = dry air → clearer skies.

4⃣ Wind – air moving from high pressure to low pressure.

• Transfers heat and moisture between regions.

• Wind direction tells us how air masses are shifting.

5⃣ Precipitation – any form of water falling from clouds (rain, snow, hail).

• Occurs when air cools and water vapor condenses into droplets heavy enough to fall.

💡 In short:
Weather = air pressure + temperature + humidity + wind + precipitation — all interacting dynamically, hour by hour.

What key factors determine Earth’s climate?

A:
Climate is the long-term pattern of weather conditions (averaged over 30+ years).
It’s controlled by broader geographic and planetary factors that shape regional differences.

1⃣ Latitude:

• Determines how much sunlight an area gets.

• Near the equator → direct sunlight → warm all year.

• Near the poles → slanted sunlight → cold, long winters.

2⃣ Altitude (elevation):

• The higher you go, the colder it gets (about –6.5°C per 1,000 m).

• Mountain climates differ greatly from surrounding lowlands.

3⃣ Proximity to water:

• Oceans heat up and cool down more slowly than land.

• Coastal regions → mild, stable temperatures.

• Inland areas → hotter summers, colder winters (continental climate).

4⃣ Ocean currents:

• Move warm and cold water around the planet.

• Warm currents (like the Gulf Stream) make nearby coasts warmer; cold currents (like the Labrador Current) make them cooler.

5⃣ Wind patterns:

• Redistribute heat and moisture globally.

• For example, trade winds and jet streams steer weather systems and storms.

6⃣ Topography (landforms):

• Mountains block air movement, creating “rain shadows.”

• Windward side (facing ocean) → wet and lush.

• Leeward side → dry and desert-like.

💡 In short:
Weather changes daily; climate is what those changes average out to over time — shaped by latitude, altitude, and geography.

: What happens in a low-pressure system?

low-pressure areas form when warm, moist, less-dense air rises from Earth’s surface.
As it rises, it expands and cools, and the cooling causes water vapor to condense into clouds — leading to rain or storms.

🌀 Rotation:

• In the Northern Hemisphere, Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect) makes air swirl counterclockwise around a low.

• In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s clockwise.

☁ Weather effects:

• Cloudy skies

• Rain, thunderstorms, or snow

• Unstable, changing conditions

💡 Think of a low-pressure system as a “vacuum” — air rushes inward and upward, carrying moisture with it → stormy weather.

What happens in a high-pressure system?

High-pressure systems occur when cool, dense air sinks toward the ground.
As it sinks, it compresses and warms, which evaporates clouds and creates clear, stable weather.

🌀 Rotation:

• In the Northern Hemisphere, air moves clockwise around a high.

• In the Southern Hemisphere, it’s counterclockwise.

☀ Weather effects:

• Sunny skies, dry air, calm winds

• Often brings stable, fair weather

💡 Think of a high-pressure system as “air pushing down” — it prevents clouds from forming, so the sky stays clear.

What is a weather front?

A weather front is the boundary between two air masses that have different temperatures, humidity levels, or densities.
Since warm and cold air don’t mix easily, they form a “wall” between them — and that’s where most weather happens.

• Warm air is light and rises.

• Cold air is dense and sinks.
  When they meet → clouds, rain, or storms form depending on which one moves faster.

💡 Think of a front like a clash zone — where two armies of air (warm vs cold) meet and battle, creating weather changes.

What is a warm front?

A warm front occurs when a warm air mass moves in and replaces a cooler one.

Because warm air is lighter, it slowly slides up over the cold air ahead of it.
This gentle rise creates layers of clouds that gradually thicken as the front approaches.

☁ Weather pattern:

• Long-lasting, steady rain or drizzle before the front passes.

• Once it moves through → warmer, humid air follows.

💡 Analogy: A warm front is like a soft blanket slowly draping over a cold one — it takes time but covers a large area.

What is a cold front?

A cold front happens when a cold, dense air mass pushes underneath a warm one.
Because it moves faster, it forces the warm air to rise sharply.

☁ Weather pattern:

• Tall cumulonimbus clouds (thunderclouds) form.

• Intense but short-lived storms: lightning, heavy rain, possibly hail.

• After it passes → the air feels cooler, drier, and clearer.

💡 Analogy: A cold front is like a bulldozer pushing up warm air — fast, powerful, and dramatic.

How do warm and cold fronts affect local weather?
A:

• Warm front: brings steady, prolonged precipitation → gentle but persistent.

• Cold front: brings brief, intense storms → then clear, cooler air.

🧠 Remember:
Warm = slow & steady
Cold = quick & stormy

What is a tornado?

A tornado is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm down to the ground.

It forms when warm, humid air collides with cold, dry air, creating intense instability in the atmosphere.

Here’s how it develops step-by-step 👇
1⃣ Warm air rises rapidly through cool air → forms strong updrafts inside a thunderstorm.
2⃣ Wind speeds and directions at different heights start rotating horizontally → forming a mesocyclone (a rotating air column).
3⃣ The rotating column is pulled downward by the storm’s downdraft and visible condensation forms a funnel cloud.
4⃣ When that funnel touches the ground → it becomes a tornado.

🌪 Facts:

• Wind speeds can exceed 300 km/h.

• Usually last only a few minutes, but cause severe damage.

• Rated by the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale based on destruction, not direct wind speed (EF0–EF5).

💡 Think of a tornado as Earth’s way of releasing built-up energy where extreme air masses meet — like a spinning vent for the atmosphere.

: What is the Fujita Scale?

A scale that measures damage caused by a tornado (EF0–EF5). Wind speeds are estimated based on destruction level.

Q: Which country ranks second for tornado frequency?
A: Canada, after the United States.

Q: How many tornadoes typically occur in Ontario?
A: Ontario averages dozens yearly (recently around 30–70 per year), with increasing EF2+ events.

: What is a tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or typhoon)

A tropical cyclone is a huge, rotating storm system that forms over warm ocean waters in tropical regions.
It’s called different names in different parts of the world:

• Hurricane → Atlantic Ocean & eastern Pacific

• Typhoon → western Pacific

• Cyclone → Indian Ocean or South Pacific

💡 All of them are the same phenomenon — just regional names.

They can stretch 400–1600 km across and last for days or even weeks.
At the center is the eye — a calm, low-pressure zone surrounded by the eyewall, which has the most intense winds and rain.

🌊 In short: A tropical cyclone is a massive low-pressure system powered by heat and moisture from warm ocean water.

How do tropical cyclones form?

Cyclones are like giant atmospheric engines — they convert ocean heat into wind energy.

Here’s how they develop step by step 👇

1⃣ Warm ocean water evaporates:

• The sea surface must be at least 26.5°C (around 80°F) for a cyclone to form.

• Heat from the ocean causes warm, moist air to rise from the surface.

2⃣ Air rises and cools:

• As the moist air rises, it expands and cools, and water vapor condenses into clouds.

• This condensation releases latent heat (stored energy), which warms the surrounding air — making it rise even faster.

3⃣ Low pressure develops:

• As air rises, it leaves behind a low-pressure area near the surface.

• More surrounding air rushes in to fill the space.

4⃣ Rotation begins:

• Because of Earth’s rotation (the Coriolis effect), the air starts to spiral around the low-pressure center, forming a rotating system.

5⃣ Cyclone strengthens:

• As long as it remains over warm water, heat and moisture keep fueling it.

• Winds grow stronger, clouds build higher, and the storm becomes more organized — forming the eye and eyewall.

🌀 Result: A fully developed tropical cyclone — a self-sustaining, rotating powerhouse of wind and rain.

What fuels a tropical cyclone?

The storm’s “fuel” is warm ocean water — specifically, the heat energy and water vapor rising from the sea’s surface.

Here’s how it works:

• Warm water → evaporates → adds moisture and energy to the air.

• When that moist air rises and condenses into clouds, it releases heat (latent heat of condensation).

• That released heat powers convection, making air rise even faster → pulling in more warm air → a feedback loop that strengthens the storm.

🔥 If the cyclone moves over cold water or land, it quickly weakens because it’s cut off from its heat source.

💡 In short:
Warm water = fuel
Condensation heat = engine
Land or cold water = storm dies

What scale measures hurricane strength?

The Saffir–Simpson Scale is used to rank hurricanes (tropical cyclones) by wind speed and damage potential.

Category	Wind Speed (km/h)	Damage Level
1	119–153	Minimal damage
2	154–177	Moderate damage
3	178–208	Major (trees uprooted, power loss)
4	209–251	Catastrophic (roofs destroyed, flooding)
5	252+	Complete devastation

💥 Category 3 and above are considered “major hurricanes”, capable of severe destruction.

🧠 Tip: Don’t just memorize numbers — focus on the pattern: as category increases → wind speed, damage, and storm surge all increase dramatically.

What are typical impacts of cyclones?

Tropical cyclones are among the most destructive natural events because they combine multiple hazards into one system.

Here’s what they cause 👇

1⃣ High winds

• Winds can exceed 250 km/h.

• They destroy buildings, trees, and power lines.

2⃣ Heavy rainfall

• Massive downpours cause flooding and landslides, especially in mountainous or coastal areas.

3⃣ Storm surge

• The most deadly part of many hurricanes.

• It’s a wall of seawater pushed ashore by strong winds, flooding coastal regions.

4⃣ Coastal flooding and erosion

• Shorelines are reshaped, beaches eroded, and habitats destroyed.

5⃣ Destruction of ecosystems and infrastructure

• Coral reefs, mangroves, and wetlands get damaged — which also removes natural flood protection.

• Roads, homes, and farmland can be wiped out in hours.

6⃣ After-effects:

• Disease outbreaks (contaminated water).

• Economic losses.

• Long recovery times for affected communities.

💡 Summary:
Cyclones = nature’s heat engines → powered by warm oceans → cause wind + rain + surge = widespread destruction.

How do birds respond to approaching storms?

Birds are far more sensitive to environmental cues than humans — they can detect a storm before it arrives.

They sense:
1⃣ Changes in barometric pressure:

• As a storm approaches, atmospheric pressure drops.

• Birds can feel this pressure drop through receptors in their inner ears → it warns them a storm is coming.

2⃣ Infrasound (low-frequency sound):

• Storm systems and tornadoes produce infrasound — vibrations below the range of human hearing.

• Birds can detect these vibrations from hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away.

Depending on the species, they may:

• Migrate early or change their route to avoid the storm.

• Shelter in place, hiding in dense vegetation or structures.

• Fly into the storm accidentally if caught while migrating, which often leads to exhaustion or death.

💡 So, while we check the weather app, birds check the air pressure.

What did studies show about golden-winged warblers and tornadoes?

This is one of the coolest examples of natural storm sensing ever recorded.

Researchers tracking golden-winged warblers in the U.S. found that:

• Just before a massive tornado outbreak, the birds suddenly left their breeding grounds — even though the weather was still calm.

• They flew over 1,500 km (nearly 1,000 miles) away and returned days later when the weather cleared.

🧠 Scientists concluded the birds detected infrasound from the tornado system more than 1,000 km away.
That’s well beyond any human detection ability.

💡 Why this matters:
It shows animals can sense deep atmospheric signals long before storms arrive — a built-in early warning system.
It also highlights how climate change and extreme weather could disrupt migration patterns and bird survival in the future.

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✅ Summary of this section:

• Cyclones = giant heat engines powered by warm ocean water.

• Saffir–Simpson Scale (1–5) measures their destructive strength.

• Impacts: wind, surge, flooding, ecosystem loss.

• Birds sense storms through barometric pressure and infrasound; golden-winged warblers even migrated 1,500 km to avoid a deadly tornado.

What is a biome?

A biome is a large ecological region defined by its climate, vegetation, and animal life — basically, it’s nature’s version of “climate neighborhoods.”

Each biome has a unique combination of temperature, rainfall, and seasons, which determines what plants and animals can live there.

Think of a biome like a “climate-driven ecosystem type.”

• Hot + wet → rainforest

• Cold + dry → tundra

• Moderate → temperate forest or grassland

💡 In short:
A biome = climate + plants + animals that have adapted together over time.

How many major terrestrial biomes exist globally?

There are 12 major terrestrial biomes across the planet, grouped by temperature and precipitation.

Here are the main categories (you don’t need to memorize all subtypes, but know the key examples):

Biome Type	Climate Traits	Example
Tropical Rainforest	Hot & very wet	Amazon, Congo
Tropical Dry Forest	Warm, distinct wet/dry seasons	India, Mexico
Savanna	Warm, seasonal rain, grass-dominated	Africa
Desert	Hot or cold, very dry	Sahara, Arizona
Chaparral	Mild winters, dry summers	California, Mediterranean
Temperate Grassland	Warm summers, cold winters, moderate rain	Prairies
Temperate Deciduous Forest	Moderate climate, 4 seasons	Eastern North America
Temperate Rainforest	Cool, wet, lush forests	Pacific Northwest
Boreal Forest (Taiga)	Long cold winters, short summers	Canada, Russia
Tundra	Freezing, permafrost	Arctic regions
Mountain (Alpine)	Varies with elevation	Rockies, Andes
Polar Ice	Extremely cold, low precipitation	Antarctica

💡 Notice how they follow climate gradients — from equator to poles or sea level to mountain tops.

Which biome is London, Ontario in?

London, Ontario sits in the temperate deciduous forest biome.

That means:

• Deciduous trees (like maple, oak, birch) dominate — they shed their leaves in autumn to survive cold winters.

• The region experiences four distinct seasons: warm summers, cold snowy winters, and moderate rainfall year-round.

• Soil is rich because fallen leaves decompose each year, recycling nutrients.

💡 In short: London’s biome = “classic forest with seasons” — perfect for mixed wildlife and fertile farmland.

How do latitude and altitude affect biomes?

Latitude (north–south position) and altitude (height above sea level) both control temperature and precipitation, so they shape biomes in parallel ways.

🌎 Latitude effect:

• Moving away from the equator → sunlight becomes weaker → temperature drops.

• Result: tropical → temperate → polar biomes.

🏔 Altitude effect:

• Climbing a mountain = like moving toward the poles.

• As you go higher, air gets thinner and colder, and vegetation changes — tropical forest at the base, tundra near the top, snow at the peak.

💡 Analogy:
Going up a mountain is like traveling north through climate zones in a single day.

Low altitude/latitude	Warm	Rainforest/grassland
Mid altitude/latitude	Mild	Forest/woodland
High altitude/latitude	Cold	Tundra/ice

Why are biomes important?

Biomes are the foundation of life on Earth — each one supports a unique web of organisms and critical natural functions.

🌱 They provide:

• Biodiversity: Each biome is home to species adapted to its conditions.

• Ecosystem services: Clean air, water, carbon storage, food, and medicines.

• Climate regulation: Forests and oceans absorb CO₂ and release oxygen.

• Cultural and economic value: Tourism, recreation, and livelihoods depend on biome stability.

💡 In short:
Protecting biomes = protecting the planet’s life-support systems.

What is El Niño?

El Niño is the warm phase of a natural climate pattern in the tropical Pacific Ocean known as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

Normally:

• Strong trade winds blow east to west across the Pacific, pushing warm water toward Asia and letting cold, nutrient-rich water rise near South America (called upwelling).

During El Niño:
1⃣ Trade winds weaken or reverse.
2⃣ Warm surface water piles up near South America.
3⃣ Upwelling decreases, so fewer nutrients reach surface waters.
4⃣ The ocean and atmosphere warm — changing weather globally.

🌧 Typical effects:

• Wetter conditions in the Americas (floods, heavy rain).

• Drier, hotter conditions in Asia and Australia (droughts, wildfires).

• Disrupts fishing along the west coast of South America due to lost nutrients.

💡 In short:
El Niño = weaker winds → warmer ocean → wetter Americas, drier Asia.

What is La Niña?

La Niña is the cool phase — basically El Niño’s opposite twin.

During La Niña:
1⃣ Trade winds strengthen.
2⃣ Warm water is pushed even farther west.
3⃣ Upwelling increases, bringing cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface.
4⃣ The Pacific cools below normal.

🌧 Typical effects:

• Colder, wetter winters in Canada and northern U.S.

• Drier, hotter weather in southern U.S. and parts of South America.

• More hurricanes in the Atlantic (warmer conditions there).

💡 In short:
La Niña = stronger winds → cooler Pacific → cold, wet north + dry south.

Recap

Feature	El Niño	La Niña
Trade Winds	Weaken	Strengthen
Sea Surface Temp	Warmer	Cooler
Upwelling	Decreases	Increases
Americas	Wetter	Drier (south), wetter (north)
Asia/Australia	Drier	Wetter
Canada	Warmer, milder winters	Colder, wetter winters

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✅ Summary of this section:

• Biomes: major climate-driven ecosystems — shaped by temperature & rainfall.

• London: temperate deciduous forest.

• Latitude ↑ or altitude ↑ → colder, tundra-like biomes.

• El Niño / La Niña: short-term climate swings caused by Pacific Ocean temperature shifts — they globally reshape rainfall and temperature patterns.

What are “normal” conditions in the Pacific?

Under normal (neutral) conditions, the Pacific Ocean has a natural circulation pattern driven by trade winds — steady winds that blow east to west near the equator.

Here’s what happens step by step 👇

1⃣ Trade winds push warm surface water westward →

• Warm water piles up near Indonesia and Australia, making the western Pacific warm and rainy.

2⃣ Upwelling near South America:

• As warm water is pushed west, cold, nutrient-rich water rises (upwells) near the coast of Peru and Ecuador.

• This supports rich marine life and fisheries.

3⃣ Pressure difference:

• High pressure forms near South America, low pressure near Indonesia → maintains the east-to-west wind pattern.

4⃣ Temperature balance:

• Western Pacific = warm and wet 🌧

• Eastern Pacific = cool and dry 🌬

💡 In short:
Trade winds blow warm water west → cold water upwells east → stable climate pattern.
El Niño and La Niña are just disturbances to this normal system.

How do El Niño and La Niña impact global weather?

These Pacific changes ripple across the globe by shifting ocean temperatures, jet streams, and rainfall patterns — a process known as teleconnection.

🌡 El Niño impacts:

• Warmer Pacific → more evaporation → floods in the Americas, droughts in Asia/Australia.

• Alters jet stream paths, leading to milder winters in Canada and fewer Atlantic hurricanes.

❄ La Niña impacts:

• Cooler Pacific → opposite pattern: colder, wetter winters in Canada and more hurricanes in the Atlantic.

• Drier conditions in southern U.S. and South America.

💡 Think of the Pacific Ocean as Earth’s climate engine — when it hiccups, the whole planet feels it.

What is global warming?

Global warming is the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature — mainly since the early 1900s — caused by burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas.

These fuels release carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases, trapping more heat in the atmosphere.

🌍 Key idea:
It’s not about daily weather — it’s the steady upward trend in temperature measured across decades and across the whole planet.

💡 Analogy: Weather = heartbeat ❤; Climate = body temperature 🌡.
Earth’s “fever” has been rising for over a century.

What is climate change?

Climate change is broader than global warming — it includes all long-term shifts in Earth’s systems caused by that warming.

This includes:

• 🌡 Rising global temperatures

• 🌊 Sea-level rise (from melting ice & expansion)

• ❄ Ice loss (glaciers, polar ice caps)

• ⛈ More extreme weather (floods, droughts, storms)

• 🦋 Shifts in ecosystems and species distributions

💡 In short:
Global warming = temperature rise
Climate change = everything that happens because of it.

What’s the evidence of modern global warming?

Scientific data show a clear, accelerating trend:

• All 10 warmest years on record occurred within the last 13 years (NOAA, 2023).

• Glaciers are retreating on every continent.

• Arctic sea ice minimums are shrinking.

• Ocean heat content and sea levels are both rising.

• CO₂ levels are now higher than at any point in the past 800,000 years.

💡 In short: The planet is warming — and the fingerprints (CO₂, ice melt, sea rise) all point to human activity.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process where certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap outgoing infrared (IR) radiation from the surface, keeping our planet warm enough to support life.

Without it, Earth’s average temperature would be –18°C, but thanks to it, we enjoy a livable +15°C.

💡 Analogy:
Think of it like a blanket — it keeps heat from escaping too fast into space.
We need this blanket — but adding more gases makes it too thick → overheating.

: Why is the greenhouse effect important?

It’s essential for life because:

• It keeps Earth’s surface warm enough for liquid water, plant growth, and ecosystems.

• It regulates temperature, preventing extreme cold swings.

🌎 Without it → Earth = frozen wasteland.
With too much → Earth = overheated greenhouse.

💡 Balance is everything.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

Here’s the full chain of energy flow 👇

1⃣ Sunlight (shortwave radiation) passes through the atmosphere and warms Earth’s surface.
2⃣ The surface absorbs sunlight and re-emits it as infrared (longwave) radiation.
3⃣ Greenhouse gases (like CO₂, CH₄, H₂O vapor) absorb and re-radiate this IR energy — sending some back toward the surface.
4⃣ This traps heat in the lower atmosphere and maintains Earth’s warmth.

💡 In short:
Sun heats Earth → Earth emits IR → gases trap some IR → lower atmosphere warms.

What are the main greenhouse gases (GHGs)?

The major heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere are:

Gas	Chemical	Notes
Water vapor	H₂O	Most abundant; amplifies other warming.
Carbon dioxide	CO₂	Long-lived; main driver of human-caused warming.
Methane	CH₄	~28x stronger than CO₂ per molecule.
Nitrous oxide	N₂O	~300x stronger than CO₂ per molecule.
Ozone	O₃	Absorbs UV in stratosphere, but harmful at ground level.
Halocarbons (CFCs, HFCs, CCl₄)	Synthetic; powerful heat-trappers and ozone-depleting.

Which GHG is the most abundant?

Water vapor (H₂O) — it’s responsible for the largest share of the natural greenhouse effect.
However, its concentration depends on temperature — it’s a feedback, not a cause.

💡 Meaning: CO₂ warms the air → air holds more water vapor → more warming → feedback loop.

Which GHG contributes most to human-caused global warming?

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) — because humans release billions of tons annually from:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)

• Deforestation (less CO₂ absorbed by trees)

• Cement production

📈 CO₂ concentration:

• Pre-industrial (before 1850): ~280 ppm

• Today: > 420 ppm (and rising)

💡 CO₂ = the main driver of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

What are sources of methane (CH₄)?

Methane is the second most significant GHG after CO₂, but much more potent (traps ~28x more heat).

🔹 Main sources:

• Fossil fuel extraction (leaks from oil/gas drilling & pipelines)

• Livestock digestion (cows, sheep → belching methane)

• Landfills (organic waste decomposing without oxygen)

• Rice paddies (anaerobic decay in flooded fields)

💡 Methane is short-lived (~12 years) but very powerful during that time.

What are sources of nitrous oxide (N₂O)?

N₂O is a potent GHG and ozone-depleting gas.

🔹 Main sources:

• Agriculture: nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure release N₂O during decomposition.

• Feedlots and wastewater treatment → microbial activity produces it.

• Vehicles and industry: combustion of fossil fuels and chemical production.

💥 N₂O traps ~300 times more heat per molecule than CO₂ and persists in the atmosphere for over 100 years.

What are halocarbons (CFCs/HFCs)?

Halocarbons are synthetic, human-made chemicals containing carbon and halogen atoms (like chlorine or fluorine).

🔹 Examples:

• CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

• HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)

• CCl₄ (carbon tetrachloride)

🔹 Uses:

• Refrigerants, aerosol sprays, solvents, and foam production.

🔹 Why dangerous:

• They are extremely powerful greenhouse gases — thousands of times stronger than CO₂.

• Many (like CFCs) also destroy stratospheric ozone, which protects us from UV radiation.

🌏 Thanks to international agreements (like the Montreal Protocol), CFC use has been mostly phased out — but their replacements (HFCs) are still warming agents.

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✅ Section Summary Snapshot

Concept	Summary
Normal Pacific	Trade winds push warm water west, cold upwelling east
El Niño/La Niña	Disturb the normal pattern → global weather shifts
Global warming	Long-term temperature rise due to human GHGs
Climate change	Broad impacts: ice loss, sea rise, extreme weather
Greenhouse effect	Natural warming process; intensified by humans
Main GHGs	H₂O, CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, O₃, halocarbons
Main culprit	CO₂ (fossil fuels + deforestation)

What is “anthropogenic intensification” of the greenhouse effect?
A:

Let’s start with the basics — the greenhouse effect itself.

Normally, Earth’s atmosphere acts like a thermal blanket:
1⃣ Sunlight (shortwave radiation) enters the atmosphere and warms Earth’s surface.
2⃣ Earth’s surface then releases heat energy (infrared radiation) back toward space.
3⃣ Greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and water vapor (H₂O) absorb and re-radiate some of that heat — keeping Earth warm enough for life.

🌱 This natural effect is essential — without it, Earth’s average temperature would be around –18°C instead of +15°C.

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Now, anthropogenic means “caused by humans.”

So, the anthropogenic intensification of the greenhouse effect means:
👉 Human activities are adding more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere than natural processes can handle.
👉 This strengthens the natural greenhouse effect, trapping extra heat and causing accelerated global warming.

💨 Main human sources:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) → adds CO₂

• Deforestation → less CO₂ absorbed by trees

• Agriculture & livestock → emit methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O)

• Industry & waste → release fluorinated gases (F-gases), powerful heat trappers

🔥 Result:
More greenhouse gases = more heat trapped = rising global temperature → shifting weather, melting ice, and rising seas.

💡 In short:
The greenhouse effect itself isn’t bad — it’s life-saving.
What’s bad is humans intensifying it beyond what Earth can balance.

What’s the relationship between GHG emissions and temperature over history?

There’s a direct, proven correlation between greenhouse gas levels and global temperatures — meaning, when one rises, so does the other.

Let’s look at it historically 👇

🧊 Ice core data (from Antarctica and Greenland) show:

• For the last 800,000 years, CO₂ and temperature have moved in sync — rising and falling together during glacial (cold) and interglacial (warm) periods.

• These natural cycles were slow — taking thousands of years.

🏭 But since the Industrial Revolution (mid-1700s):

• CO₂ jumped from ~280 ppm to over 420 ppm today — the fastest rise in human history.

• Global average temperature increased by about 1.2°C in just 150 years — an incredibly rapid change compared to natural cycles.

💬 So:
When humans increase greenhouse gases, global temperatures follow — it’s cause and effect, not coincidence.

💡 Analogy:
Think of the atmosphere as a blanket:
→ Natural greenhouse gases = a comfortable blanket.
→ Human-added gases = piling on extra layers → Earth overheats.

What is a climate graph?

A climate graph (also called a climograph) visually shows average monthly temperature and precipitation for a specific location over a year.

It combines two types of graphs in one:

• A bar graph for precipitation (rain, snow, etc.)

• A line graph for temperature changes

💡 It’s basically a one-glance summary of a region’s climate pattern — how hot and how wet it is throughout the year.

How do you interpret a climate graph?

🧭 Axes:

• X-axis (horizontal): Months of the year (January → December)

• Left Y-axis: Precipitation (mm) — shown as vertical bars

• Right Y-axis: Temperature (°C) — shown as a curved line

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🌦 Look for patterns:
1⃣ Temperature curve:

• A flat line (little change all year) → tropical or maritime climate.

• A sharp rise and fall → continental climate (big difference between summer and winter).

2⃣ Precipitation bars:

• Even rainfall all year → temperate or maritime climate (e.g., Vancouver).

• Wet summer, dry winter → tropical monsoon or savanna.

• Dry all year → desert climate.

3⃣ Compare both together:

• If high temperature & high rainfall → tropical rainforest.

• If low rainfall & big temperature swings → desert or continental interior.

• If cool + moderate rainfall → temperate coastal.

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🧠 Pro tip:
When you look at a climate graph, ask yourself:

• Is it warm all year or seasonal?

• Is it wet or dry most of the time?

• Are there any extremes (spikes or dips)?

The answers tell you the climate zone and even help identify the biome (e.g., rainforest, desert, tundra).

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💬 Example:
If a climate graph shows:

• Avg. temperature: 25–27°C all year

• Precipitation: >200 mm every month
  → That’s a tropical rainforest biome (e.g., Amazon, Congo Basin).

If it shows:

• Temperature swings from –10°C (winter) to +25°C (summer)

• Low precipitation year-round
  → That’s a cold desert or steppe biome.

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✅ Summary of this section:

Concept	Key Idea
Anthropogenic intensification	Humans adding greenhouse gases → stronger greenhouse effect → global warming
GHG–temperature relationship	Direct correlation: when CO₂ rises, temperature rises
Climate graph	Combines temperature (line) + precipitation (bars) to show a region’s climate
Interpretation	Use patterns to identify climate zone or biome type