AICE Psychology Cognitive Unit Review

Baron-Cohn et al say that the Eyes Test only involves the first and not the second stage in the attribution of theory of mind. Describe both of the stages.

Stage 1: attribution

of relevant mental state (e.g. compassion)

Stage 2: inferring / inference

of content of that mental state (e.g. compassion for her mother's loss)

Baron-Cohen et al (eyes test) used four groups of participants. Describe two of these groups.

1. Normal adult students: 103 Cambridge undergraduates, 53 male / 50 female, 71 science / 32

other subjects, assumed to have high IQ.

2. Random adults from population: 14, IQ matched with group 1, similar in age to group 1.

IQ = 116 av. i.e. normal

From Baron-Cohen (eyes test):

(a) Describe one problem they identified with the original eyes test.

(b) Explain how the revised eyes test solves this problem.

a) • parents of children with AS also scored lower than the general population

b) more female than male faces therefore biased: equal no. of male and female faces in

revised version (so no risk of gender bias/also allowed testing of gender differences)

Baron-Cohen et al made five predictions about the results on the revised eyes test. Describe two of these predictions.

• The AS/HFA group would score significantly higher in the AQ (...than...).

• Females in the 'normal' groups (2 and 3) would score higher (than males on the Eyes Test).

From Baron-Cohen (eyes test):

(a) What is meant by 'theory of mind'?

(b) The Control group were much better on the eyes test than the experimental group (of high functioning autistics and people with Asperger syndrome). What does this tell us about theory of mind?

a) ToM "is shorthand for the ability to attribute mental states to oneself or another person".

b) That ToM normally helps to map mental states to facial expressions.

From Baron-Cohen (eyes test):

(a) Describe how the Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism (AS/HFA) participants were selected.

(b) Describe how are the normal adult (control) participants were selected.

A) Volunteer / self-selected sampling,

through adverts in UK national Autistic Society magazine (or equivalent support groups)

b) Opportunity sampling,

from adult community/education classes (in Exeter)

from public library users (in Cambridge)

Baron-Cohen (eyes test) compared Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism (AS/HFA) and control groups.

(a) A graph was used to show the spread of eyes test scores in the control groups. Describe the general shape of this graph.

(b) Describe the difference in results on the eyes test between the AS/HFA group and any of the controls.

A) Graph is bar chart showing distribution of scores on eyes test for groups 2 and 3.

B) AS/HFA lower than all control groups.

Group 4 IQ matched controls higher than AS/HFA (30.9 cf 21.9)

Baron-Cohen et al (eyes test) investigated Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism (AS/HFA) participants.

(a) Identify two of the four tests from the WAIS-R used to assess IQ in the AS/HFA group.

(b) Describe the overall score on this test for the AS/HFA group.

a)block design and vocabulary

b) in normal range; mean = 115

Baron-Cohen et al (eyes test) provided a glossary of 93 words to help participants to identify mental states. List four of these words.

PREOCCUPIED

PUZZLED

REASSURING

REFLECTIVE

Baron-Cohen et al. found a small but non-significant gender difference in the revised eyes test for the general population and student controls (groups 2 and 3).

(a) State the gender difference they expected to find and why they expected to find this difference.

(b) What reason did Baron-Cohen et al. give for these results being non-significant?

a) Females better - because trend for female superiority in previous version of test / because

females generally have better theory of mind, better empathisers etc.

b) "If the effect size is relatively small, the chance of detecting a sex difference would be

low"/not a big difference, so unlikely to see it in a small sample

In the study by Baron-Cohen et al., they suggested that one problem with the original eyes test was that it suffered from a ceiling effect.

(a) Explain what is meant by a 'ceiling effect'.

(b) Suggest why a ceiling effect is a problem in this study.

a) All participants score highly on the test because it is too easy

b) Because it narrows the range of results/it is harder to discriminate between participants

so in this study it would be hard to tell who was very good and who was fairly good at judging

emotion

From the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), describe the Autism Quotient (AQ) results for the high-functioning autism/Asperger syndrome (HFA/AS) group compared to the student controls (group 3).

HFA/AS: Mean AQ 34.4 (all males)

Student controls: difference between genders;

both lower than HFA/AS: Mean AQ 18.3 (all)

Mean AQ males = 19.5

Mean AQ females = 16.6

Baron-Cohen et al. used a pencil and paper (static) version of the eyes test but believe that a video (dynamic) version could be developed.

(a) Suggest an advantage of a static eyes test.

(b) Suggest an advantage of a dynamic eyes test.

a) easy for researchers/participants to use so likely to obtain more participants, increasing

reliability of findings

has been used many times before so known to be valid and reliable

reliable because fewer things vary as (eyes) not moving

b) more representative of actual facial expressions as we see people's eyes in a context rather

than a snapshot/so life-like i.e. valid/has more details about the eyes

In the revised eyes test, Baron-Cohen et al. wanted to solve a problem about the comprehension

of the words used to describe the mental states.

(a) Explain the possible problem with comprehension of words in the original eyes test.

(b) Explain how they solved this problem in the revised eyes test.

a) scores may have been lower if participants did not understand (so could only guess)

so HFA might appear to do worse than they are really because of their language delay

b) mention of glossary

From the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test):

(a) Describe where the participants did the eyes test.

(b) Outline two other tasks that some of the participants were asked to complete.

a) In a (quiet) room, in Cambridge/Exeter

b) (The AS/HFA group also) judged the gender of each person on the photo

(Groups 1, 3 and 4 also completed the) AQ

From the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test):

(a) Describe the revised eyes test results from Group 1 (AS/HFA) and Group 4 (IQ matched controls).

(b) What did Baron-Cohen et al. conclude about social and non-social intelligence in adults with autism spectrum disorders?

A) Group 1 (AS/HFA): Mean 21.9 (SD 6.6)

Group 4 (controls): Mean 30.9 (SD 3)

B) That adults with Autistic spectrum disorders have impaired theory of mind/impaired ability to

detect the emotions of others/that the revised eyes test is able to detect subtle differences (in

social intelligence) between individuals

and that this is independent of general (nonsocial) intelligence

Baron-Cohen et al. hoped that the revised eyes test would be better at detecting differences than the original eyes test.

(a) What did they hope would change about the distribution of scores?

(b) In what way was the revised test better at detecting differences than the original test?

A) To remove the ceiling effect, so that the (normal) scores were not all clustered at the top of

the range

B)so it could discriminate smaller (individual) differences

not just detect extreme differences in performance

because there were more questions

Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) used four groups of participants.

Describe two of these groups.

Held and Hein (kitten carousel) used three main tests to assess visual-spatial discrimination. They also did several additional tests to check the status of peripheral receptors and responses.

Describe two of these additional tests.

Held and Hein (kitten carousel) designed their study to solve some problems in earlier research.

Describe two ways in which the visual-spatial experience of animals in this earlier research was restricted.

• restrained in holders (to prevent free movement) [Reisen and Aarons]

• diffusing hoods over eyes (to prevent form vision) [Reisen].

The study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel) used an independent groups design.

(a) What is meant by the term 'experimental design'?

(b) Explain one disadvantage for Held and Hein of using an independent groups design.

a) The way in which participants are allocated to experimental groups/conditions/levels of the

IV.

b) There may have been important differences between individuals in different experimental

groups (e.g. in terms of maturation/perceptual ability) producing spurious differences

between levels of the IV (active/passive).

The Held and Hein (kitten carousel) study was a laboratory experiment. Describe two features of a laboratory experiment.

• has IV (manipulated by experimenter)

• controls (to keep levels of the IV the same in all other aspects)

From the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel):

(a) Describe the visual cliff results for the active and passive kittens.

(b) What did Held and Hein conclude from these results?

a) no active kitten crossed to the deep side

all passive kittens crossed to the deep side sometimes

b) that self-produced movement;

with concurrent visual feedback;

is necessary for the development of visually guided movement.

From the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel):

(a) What was already known about adult human visual adaptation prior to this study?

(b) Explain whether the results for baby animals (neonates) were the same as those for human adults or different.

A) that complete sensory adaptation requires movement-produced sensory feedback

b) the same because only the kittens that could move developed a normal visually behavior guided and adults in adults in visual arrangement studies needed stimulation to be dependent on natural movement.

Held and Hein (kitten carousel) used observations to record the behavior of the kittens.

(a) Describe one behavior they assessed using observation.

(b) Outline one disadvantage of observations as a research method.

a) • blink: to approaching object

b) so (potential) loss of validity (/ limited, can't know why)

• e.g. kittens may have been more interested in something the researchers were unaware

of across the shallow side

To test depth perception in kittens, Held and Hein used the visual cliff apparatus.

(a) Describe the visual cliff apparatus.

(b) Describe the results of the visual cliff test for the active kittens.

A) Deep and shallow sides; either side of a raised bridge; below which was glass (over both

sides); patterned surfaces under the glass; ('vertical' was at a slight angle);

B)10 kittens: 12 crossings each to shallow side, none to deep shallow side.

From the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel):

(a) Describe how the kittens were divided between the conditions.

(b) Suggest why this allocation of kittens to groups was important.

a) pairs of kittens,

the two paired kittens from the same litter, each pair from a different litter,

one from each pair,

randomly,

one in active group, one in passive group.

b) So that differences between the active and passive kittens were less likely to be due to

individual differences (as each pair was from the same litter)

The study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel) was a laboratory experiment.

(a) What is a 'laboratory experiment'?

(b) Why is the study by Held and Hein a laboratory experiment?

A) A study which has an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable the IV can be manipulated (in isolation from other variables) by the researcher

B) IV = active/passive

DV = measures of perceptual development/visuospatial co-ordination

controls e.g. visual stimulation from rotation, being kept in dark unless in apparatus etc.

The study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel) used apparatus called the 'visual cliff' to collect observational data.

(a) What did observers record about the animals on the visual cliff?

(b) Why was it difficult for the kittens to see the glass?

a) Whether they stepped/crossed/walked/descended over the deep or shallow side

b) Because both patterned surfaces (30 cm and immediately underneath the glass) were

illuminated from below.

In the study by Held and Hein, the kittens spent some of their time in the carousel apparatus.

(a) Describe how the kittens were kept when they were not in the carousel.

(b) Why was their exposure to light restricted?

a) with their mother and litter mates

in the dark

b) so that they would not experience additional exposure to visually guided movement which

would confound the results of the experiment (as a control)

In the study by Held and Hein, after two days of testing the passive kittens in group X were put in a continuously illuminated room for 48 hours.

(a) Why were this group of kittens treated in this way?

(b) What did the results of this part of the study show?

a) To see whether the effects of rearing could be reversed (not simply 'changed')

so they would know if the changes were permanent

as a further test of the effects of nurture

b) The kittens had normal visually-guided paw placement after light exposure

they performed all descents to the shallow side of the visual cliff

that (depth) perception is the product of nurture (not nature)

From the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel):

(a) Describe how the exposure apparatus was given 'texture' (a visual pattern).

(b) Why was this visual pattern important to the experiment?

a) stripes

vertical (1 inch wide)

of black and white (masking tape separated by 1 inch of bare metal)

the rough side of a piece of masonite on the floor (hardboard)

b) So that the passive kitten would have a changing visual experience as it moved

so that its form vision could develop normally

In the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel) it was important to know that the kittens' eyes were still functioning normally.

(a) Describe how the kittens' eyes were tested for normal functioning.

(b) Explain why this test was important.

A) tactual placing: kitten supported as in visual paw-placing, carried to table, dorsa of front

paws brought into contact with (vertical) edge, kitten should put paws on horizontal surface

B) To be sure that the effect on depth perception/visually guided behaviour/the visual

cliff was in the brain not in the eyes

In the study by Held and Hein, a piece of apparatus called the 'kitten carousel' was used.

(a) Describe the different movements made by the active kitten that the carousel reproduced for the passive kitten.

(b) Describe the difference in experience between the active and passive kittens.

a) kitten A could move up and down (bend its legs) = a-a

kitten A could turn around (in either direction) where it was standing = c-c/d-d

B) The active kitten felt movement and saw visual changes at the same time, the passive kitten

saw visual changes without simultaneous movement.

From the study by Held and Hein (kitten carousel):

(a) Describe how the passive kitten's movement was restricted.

(b) Describe the results that showed how this treatment affected the ability of the passive kittens to make visually-guided paw placements.

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Describe the results for the recall and clarity of true events.

(b) Describe the results for the recall and clarity of false events.

a) 49/72 = 68% events recalled

Mean clarity rating 6.3

B)7/24 = 29% events recalled (interview 1) / 6/24 = 25% events recalled (interview 2)

Mean clarity rating 2.8 (interview 1) / Mean clarity rating 3.6 (interview 2)

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Explain what the participants believed the study was about.

(b) Explain why this was necessary.

a) "Subjects were told that they were participating in a study on childhood memories, and that

we were interested in how and why people remembered some things and not others."

b) If they had known the real purpose it would not have been possible to investigate false

beliefs as they would have known which event was false

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Identify two elements always included in the false events story.

(b) State two pieces of information that Loftus and Pickrell obtained from the participants' relatives to write the false event.

a) • lost for an extended period of time

• crying because scared/confused

b) • where the family would have shopped when the subject was about 5 years old

• which members of the family usually went along on shopping trips

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Describe what is meant by 'retroactive inhibition'.

(b) Explain how Loftus and Pickrell's study is a test of retroactive inhibition.

a) Forgetting/inaccurate recall of one thing because a subsequent thing disrupts the first

memory

b) Original memory of childhood is disrupted by subsequent (inaccurate) information (from

booklet).

Describe two characteristics of the participants from the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories).

• adults (aged 18-53 years)

• parent/child or sibling pairs (recruited by students [of University of Washington])

Loftus and Pickrell studied false memories.

(a) Describe the aim of the study.

(b) Describe one piece of evidence which supports the aim.

a) To find out whether it is possible to implant (an entire) false memory for something that never

happened.

b) 29% (7/24 participants) 'remembered' the false shopping mall memory (or 6/24, 25% after

first interview).

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Describe how the sample was obtained.

(b) Explain one disadvantage of sampling in this way.

a) Opportunity sampling

"They were recruited by University of Washington students;

each student provided a pair of individuals,

which included both a subject and the subject's relative".

b) Demand characteristics: All the participants will have known a psychology student, this

might have made them more suspicious about the experiment.

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Describe the aim of this study.

(b) Explain how this aim differs from most earlier research in this area.

a) To find out "...whether it is possible to implant (an entire) false memory for something that

never happened..."

b) Earlier research looked at how post event information causes errors in recall of previously

acquired information

i.e. retroactive inhibition

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) What were the participants told about the aim of the study before participating?

(b) What is meant by 'informed consent'?

A) "Subjects were told that they were participating in a study on childhood memories, and that

we were interested in how and why people remembered some things and not others."

B) tells them enough about the study; to agree to participate.

Loftus and Pickrell (false memories) used a repeated measures design to compare recall of true and false events.

(a) Describe what is meant by a 'repeated measures design'.

(b) Describe the results for the number of words that were used to recall true and false memories.

a) The experimental design/how participants are allocated to conditions such that all

participants do all conditions/levels of the IV

b) mean number of words used: True: 138

False: 49.9

In the study by Loftus and Pickrell, they gave an example of the false event presented to one participant, a 20-year-old Vietnamese-American woman. Describe this false event.

lost in mall; age 5; crying; elderly/Chinese/woman;

In the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories) the participants were sent a booklet. Describe this booklet and what the participants were required to do with it.

5 page booklet, with true and false stories, the latter always third, the participants filled in the

details they remembered about each one

In their final comment, Loftus and Pickrell (false memories) say that people can be led to confidently remember, in great detail, events which never happened. In relation to eyewitness testimony and court cases:

(a) Describe how Loftus and Pickrell say this knowledge can be helpful.

(b) Describe what Loftus and Pickrell say this knowledge cannot help us to do.

a) Eyewitnesses may provide extensive (false) detail and be falsely confident

even about biologically or geographically impossible things, so testimonies should be treated

with caution

b) Although we do know that eyewitnesses' 'memories' may be false, we can't

reliably tell which ones are false so need corroboration

In the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories) they describe a similar procedure used by Hyman et al. Describe two ways in which this study differed from that of Loftus and Pickrell.

information with memories = given title and age

aim = believed aim was to compare recall to parents (not childhood memory)

Describe two ways in which Loftus and Pickrell (false memories) ensured their study was ethical.

right to withdraw - participants could have not returned their questionnaire/responded to

telephone call

confidentiality - no participants named

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

Describe two features of the interviews.

scheduled two interviews (by telephone)

(if convenient) interviews done at university (face to face) or (most) by telephone

From the study by Loftus and Pickrell (false memories):

(a) Outline how the averages were calculated on the data about the number of words the participants used in their descriptions.

(b) Describe what was found from these averages.

a) Calculated the mean number of words used

all the words used (by all participants) were added together and divided by the number of

participants

b) 138 words for true events (accept 136-140)

49.9 words for false events (accept 48-50 either way)

Loftus and Pickrell suggested that a false memory may 'evolve' from fragments of memory, that is, from other information.

(a) What sources of information did Loftus and Pickrell say participants may already have, and include in their false memory?

(b) How did Loftus and Pickrell explain the inclusion of this information into the memory of the false event?

a) knowledge about being lost

stories about others being lost

b) The old memories become linked to (confounded with) the new suggestion

so that the memory that the false event was a mere suggestion deteriorates

and may become embellished with real memories

Describe two behaviours recorded by observers from the videotapes of suspects in the study by Mann et al (lying).

Gaze aversion: number of seconds for which the participant looked away from the interviewer

Blinking: frequency of eye blinks NB: blink more / blink less = 2 marks (as indicate that frequency

was measured)

From the study by Mann et al (lying):

(a) Describe one individual difference in deceptive behaviour.

(b) Explain why Mann et al challenged the simplistic view that typical deceptive behaviour exists.

a) gaze aversion - 56% increased when lying, 44% decreased when lying

b) "Importantly, the findings of this study demonstrated large individual differences in deceptive

behaviour and they challenge the simplistic view, even expressed by professional liecatchers...

that a typical deceptive behaviour exists."

From the study by Mann et al (lying), suggest two reasons why Mann et al thought that liars would not display nervous behaviours.

simultaneous cognitive processes:

• increased cognitive load

• attempted behavioural control

Describe two features of the participants from the study by Mann et al (lying).

• juveniles and adults (4 J: 13-15 years, 12 adults: under 65)

• 2 ethnic/language groups (15 Caucasian/English first language, 1 Asian/Punjabi speaker but

fluent in English)

The experiment by Mann et al (lying) investigated whether the suspects were lying or telling the truth.

(a) Explain why this is an experiment.

(b) Outline one advantage of laboratory experiments using Mann et al as an example.

a) • investigates causal relationships (lying affects behaviour)

b) can manipulate IV: e.g. correctly select truth / lie segments of video

Describe two aims from the study by Mann et al (lying).

to investigate whether there are systematic differences in behaviour between lying and truthtelling;

• to investigate individual differences in behaviour during lying and truth-telling;

The study by Mann et al looked at lying. Describe two differences in the behaviour of criminals

telling the truth and criminals lying, found in this study.

Mann et al (lying) say that it is hard to investigate the non-verbal behaviours accompanying deception.

(a) Explain why.

(b) How did they overcome this problem?

a) "because it is difficult to capture on tape people lying spontaneously where it is known for

certain that they are lying, and at which point"

b) They examined: videotapes of real criminals being questioned by police, using suspects who

initially denied but later confessed to high stakes crimes, and studied videotapes of truthful

and deceptive behaviour

From the study by Mann et al. (lying) 'self-manipulations', 'illustrators' and 'pauses' were recorded behaviours. Describe two examples of these behaviours.

Self-manipulations: frequency of scratching the head, wrists etc. (touching the hands was

counted as hand/finger movements rather than self-manipulations)

Illustrators: frequency of arm and hand movements which were designed to modify and/or

supplement what was being said verbally

From the study by Mann et al. (lying):

(a) Give two examples of crimes of which the suspects were accused.

(b) Describe what the researchers did to be sure that the sections of video they were using from the suspects were definitely lies or truths.

a) rape, murder

b) "The experimenter scoured the files looking for forensic evidence or substantial reliable

independent witness statements to corroborate instances of truth or lie as implicated by the

investigating officer

From the study by Mann et al. (lying):

(a) The observers who coded the behaviours on the videos were only told "to code the video footage". Explain why they were not given information about the hypothesis.

(b) How did Mann et al. ensure that the two coders were coding the video clips in similar ways?

a) Would have biased their decisions / introduced demand characteristics

b) The Pearson's correlations show evidence of a strong consistency between the two coders.

Extraneous variables are factors, other than the independent variable, that should be controlled but may not be. From the study by Mann et al. (lying):

(a) State two extraneous variables that were controlled.

(b) State two extraneous variables that were not controlled.

a) all lies/truths on the videos were corroborated

all lies/truths on the videos were comparable

B) the number of truths and lies overall

the number of truths and lies per suspect

In the study by Mann et al. (lying) several examples of 'speech disturbances' are given:

(a) Give two examples of possible 'speech disturbances', these can include your own ideas. [2]

(b) State the results for speech disturbances from the video clips of truths and lies.

a) , stumbling over words, mumbling

b) truthful: 5.22 (disturbances per 100 words)

deceptive: 5.34 (disturbances per 100 words)

In the study by Mann et al. (lying) inter-rater reliability was checked.

(a) What is meant by inter-rater reliability?

(b) Explain how inter-rater reliability was checked in this study.

A) the extent to which observers/coders/raters will produce the same observations when they

watch the same events/video/truths and lies

so they correlate/achieved by operational definitions

b) by asking both coders to rate a sample of (36) clips

and correlating their observations (using Pearson's)/ to see if they corresponded

From the study by Mann et al. (lying):

(a) Explain what is meant by 'cognitive load'.

(b) To what extent do the results of the study support the effect of cognitive load on the behavior of liars?

a) Thinking too hard about lying makes means they can't focus on avoiding nervous things

b) supports cognitive load: less blinking and longer pauses are indicators and these were

seen

One ethical issue in the study by Mann et al. (lying) was the sensitive content of the video clips because they were of suspects of crimes:

(a) Outline one practical problem caused by this ethical issue.

(b) Describe how Mann et al. overcame this problem.

a) Because of the sensitive nature of the video clips it was essential that as few people as

possible outside the police viewed the tapes

Which meant testing reliability (of the coders) was a problem.

b) The second coder did not see all of the tapes

They only coded a sample of those seen by the first coder (and the inter-coder reliability was

high, so the second coder didn't see any more tapes)

36 clips, 1 of each suspect

In the study by Mann et al. (lying) they suggested that an important comparison had been omitted, one between high-stakes liars who deny an offence they have committed with high-stakes truthtellers who plead innocence when falsely accused.

(a) Describe why this omission was important.

(b) Suggest one factor that could be controlled in this new comparison.

A) The behaviours might be similar because both might experience, and perhaps to the same

extent, emotions and/or cognitive load and/or might attempt to control their behaviour.

Thus high stakes truth tellers might be mistaken for high stakes liars and the innocent might

be wrongly convicted.

b) the type of crime (truth-telling when the crime is unpleasant, e.g. rape, may be just as

distressing)

From the study by Mann et al. (lying):

(a) Describe two factors that were controlled in the choice of suspects.

(b) Explain why one of these factors was important to the study.

A) Understanding of English (English was first language or fluent second language)

Crimes they were accused of committing (arson/rape/murder/were all high stakes)

B) Understanding of English: interviews in English, so if not fluent may have produced different

behaviours, e.g. pausing because didn't understand

Mann et al. (lying) analysed some behaviours using total times and some as frequencies.

(a) Identify two of the behaviours analysed using total times.

(b) Describe the difference in results between these two behaviours.

a) gaze aversion and pauses

b) pauses differed, gazes didn't

In the study by Mann et al. (lying), some true information about the suspect was not included in the examples of clips used for truth telling.

(a) Identify this true information.

(b) Explain why this true information was not included in the analysis.