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ethnocentrism
The belief that one's own culture is superior to others.
ethnography
The systematic study and detailed description of people and cultures based on fieldwork.
cultural relativism
The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of another culture.
etic
An outsider's perspective on a cultural phenomenon.
emic
An insider's perspective on a cultural phenomenon.
holism
The approach of studying cultures as interconnected systems.
cultural diffusion
The spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to another.
cultural adaptation
The process by which individuals or groups adjust to new cultures.
cultural universals
Elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to all human cultures.
subculture
A cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture.
enculturation
The process by which individuals learn their culture.
assimilation
The process by which individuals or groups adopt the culture of another group.
pluralism
A condition or system in which multiple distinct ethnic, religious, or cultural groups coexist.
small-scale societies
Communities that are generally less complex and smaller in size.
clan
A group of related families that usually shares a common ancestor.
band
A small, flexible group of people, often nomadic, that acts cooperatively.
tribe
A social group comprising numerous families or clans that share a common ancestry.
chiefdom
A political organization based on kinship and often led by a chief.
state
A political entity with a centralized government, defined territory, and sovereignty.
nation
A large group of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language.
social control
Mechanisms, strategies, and institutions aimed at regulating individual behavior.
social norms
Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members.
social deviance
Behavior that violates social norms.
sanctions
Consequences applied to reinforce social norms.
socialization
The process through which individuals learn and internalize the values and norms of their culture.
age grade
A system of social organization that groups individuals by their age.
social differentiation
The process by which different social roles develop in a society.
caste
A social class or group in Hindu society, stratified and often hereditary.
social rank
The position or status of an individual within a social hierarchy.
social status
The social standing or prestige of an individual or group.
egalitarian societies
Societies characterized by the absence of hierarchical differences.
moot
A discussion or debate, often used in legal contexts to talk about cases not having practical significance.
shame
A painful feeling of humiliation or distress caused by the consciousness of wrong or foolish behavior.
rites of solidarity
Ceremonies that unite members of a community and reinforce social bonds.
rite of passage
A ceremony marking an important stage in someone's life, such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death.
separation
The first stage in a rite of passage where the individual is removed from their previous status.
transition/liminality
A phase in a rite of passage characterized by ambiguity and transition into a different state.
incorporation/reintegration
The final stage in a rite of passage where the individual is reintroduced into society with a new status.
kinship
The network of relationships that form an important part of the social structure.
endogamy
The practice of marrying within a specific social group.
exogamy
The practice of marrying outside of a specific social group.
affines
Relatives by marriage.
matrilineal
A social system in which lineage is traced through the mother's family.
patrilineal
A social system in which lineage is traced through the father's family.
fictive kinship
Social ties that are based on personal relationships rather than biological relationships.
affinal kin
Relatives acquired through marriage.
consanguineal kin
Relatives by blood.
patrilocal
A residence pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's family.
matrilocal
A residence pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's family.
matriarchy
A social system in which women hold primary power.
unilineal
Descent traced through one line, either maternal or paternal.
ambilineal
Descent that permits individuals to choose between patrilineal or matrilineal affiliation.
bilateral
Descent traced through both maternal and paternal lines.
clans
Groups of families that are believed to be descended from a common ancestor.
kindred
A group of relatives that may include extended family.
acephalous society
A society without a formal political leader or ruling head.
food collecting society/hunting & gathering
Societies that rely on foraging for food, rather than agriculture.
swidden/shifting cultivation/slash and burn horticulturalists
Agricultural practices that involve rotating fields and clearing land by burning.
pastoralists
People who rely primarily on the domestication and herding of animals for their livelihood.
agriculture
The practice of cultivating soil, producing crops, and raising livestock.
industrialization
The process of developing industries in a country or region.
carrying capacity
The maximum population size that an environment can sustain.
nomadism
A lifestyle involving the movement from one place to another, often in search of food.
transhumance
Seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.
production
The process of creating goods and services.
exchange
The act of trading goods and services.
division of labor
The assignment of different tasks to different individuals or groups.
balanced reciprocity
A type of exchange where goods and services are given with the expectation of a similar return.
generalized reciprocity
A form of exchange where returns are not expected immediately.
redistribution
The allocation of resources in a community, typically through a central authority.
bridewealth
A transfer of goods from the family of the groom to the family of the bride.
potlatch
A ceremonial feast among Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, involving gift-giving.
tribute
Payments made by one state or ruler to another as a sign of submission or allegiance.
big man society
A form of political organization relying on charismatic leaders known as 'big men'.
globalization
The process by which businesses or organizations develop international influence.
religion
A system of beliefs and practices regarding the sacred and the supernatural.
animism
The belief that objects, places, and creatures possess a spiritual essence.
polytheism
The worship of or belief in multiple deities.
monotheism
The belief in a single all-powerful God.
shamanism
A practice involving a practitioner, the shaman, who engages with the spirit world.
supernatural belief
Beliefs about phenomena that transcend the natural world.
magic
The practice of using rituals, symbols, and actions to influence events.
taboo
A social or cultural prohibition against certain practices or discussions.
fetish
An object that is believed to have magical powers.
ritual
A series of actions performed according to a prescribed order.
globalization
The increasing interconnectedness of societies and cultures across the world.
tourism
The business of providing services to people who are traveling.
diaspora
The dispersion of any people from their original homeland.
cult
A religious or social group with deviant beliefs or practices.
myth
A traditional story that explains the beliefs or practices of a culture.
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