Card 1-30: Homeostasis Card 31-62: Inheritance, Variation and Evolution Card 63+: Ecology
What is a receptor?
A cell that detects a stimulus (a change in conditions)
What is the purpose of the coordination centre?
Process information and organise a response
What is the purpose of the effector?
A muscle or gland that carries out a response to bring conditions back to optimal level
What is the purpose of the frontal cortex?
Outer wrinkly part that controls language, memory and consciousness
What is the purpose of the cerebellum?
Back, right spongey looking thing - controls muscle coordination
What is the purpose of the medulla?
Pink bumpy thing that is next to the spinal coord - controls unconscious activities
How can the brain be studied?
Look at patients with brain damage - check which parts of the brain are damaged and see how that affects the patient
MRI Scans - tell a person to carry out tasks and see which parts of the brain are active
Electrical stimulation - use an electrode to stimulate parts of the brain and see what happens
What is the purpose of the kidneys?
To produce urine by removing waste products from the blood
What is selective reabsorption?
The process in which useful substances are reabsorbed from the kidneys
What is the hormone that controls water levels in the body? Where is it secreted from?
ADH, from the pituitary gland
What happens if water levels are low?
More ADH is secreted
More water is reabsorbed from kidneys by selective reabsorption
Concentration of urine increases
What happens if water levels are too high?
Less ADH is secreted
Less water is reabsorbed from kidneys by selective reabsorption
Concentration of urine decreases
How does proteins get converted into urea?
Body can not store proteins so they have to be converted into carbs and fats
This process releases ammonia which is toxic to the body
Ammonia is converted into urea in the liver
What happens if ion levels are too low?
More ions are reabsorbed from the kidneys by selective reabsorption
What substances do the kidneys filter from the blood?
Urea
Ions
Water
Process of dialysis
Blood flows through the dialysis machine
Waste products are filtered out through the partially permeable membrane
Dialysis fluid contains same concentration of glucose and ions as the blood, so these substances are not lost
What are the pros and cons of dialysis?
Pros: allow you to buy time for a kidney transplant
Cons: Time consuming (has to be done 3-4 times a week), expensive, can cause blood clots and infection, unpleasant
What are the pros and cons of kidney transplants?
Pros: effectively treat kidney failure, cheaper in the long run than dialysis
Cons: Can be rejected by the immune system, immunosuppresants have to be taken which leave you compromised
What are the stages of the menstrual cycle:
Day 1-4: uterus lining breaks down
Day 4-14: uterus lining is built up
Day 14: ovulation, mature egg is released from ovaries
Day 14-28: uterus lining is maintained to allow the egg to become fertilised
What are the hormones used in the menstrual cycle?
1) FSH - causes egg to mature, stimulates release of oestrogen
2) Oestrogen - builds up lining of uterus, stimulates release of LH, inhibits release of FSH
3) LH - causes egg to be released from ovaries
4) Progesterone - maintains lining of the uterus, inhibits release of FSH and LH
How does oestrogen control fertility?
Inhibits release of FSH, which prevents egg from maturing
How does progesterone control fertility?
Builds up thick mucus on uterus lining, blocks sperm from passing so egg does not become fertilised
What is the process of thermoregulation?
Thermal receptors on skin detect temperature change
Thermoregulation centre in the brain coordinates a response
Muscles and glands carry out response to bring body temperature to optimum levels (37 degrees celcius)
What happens if you are too hot?
You start to sweat, cools you down when it evaporates
Vasodilation, blood vessels swell to the surface of the skin which increases rate at which heat is lost (energy is transferred to surroundings)
What happens if you are too cold?
You start to shiver, repeated muscle contraction transfers energy from respiration to warm you up
Hairs stand to trap insulating layer of air
Vasoconstriction, blood vessels constrict to minimise heat loss
How do auxins work in a phototropism?
Auxins move towards the side of the plant which is exposed to shade, causing the plant to grow in the direction of the light
How do auxins work in a gravitropism?
Auxins move towards the lower side of the plant
In shoots, auxins promote growth so the shoot grows upwards
In roots, auxins inhibit growth so the root grows downwards
What are the uses of auxins?
Grow plants from cuttings
Grow cells in tissue culture
Kill weeds
What are the uses of gibbirelines?
Increases yield of fruit
Induces flowering
Allows you to grow plants when they are dormant
What are the uses of ethenes?
Release an enzyme which causes plants to ripen
What is DNA?
The chemical which contains coded information that instructs what characteristics you inherit, found in the nucleus in chromosomes
What monomers make up DNA?
Nucleotides
What is a gene?
A small section of DNA on a chromosome
Instructs the cell to make certain amino acids, and arrange them in a certain way to make proteins
What is a genome?
All of the genetic information of an organism
Why is the genome important?
Allows us to see which genes are linked to hereditary diseases
Increases understanding of hereditary diseases, which can lead to treatments
Allows us to see the migration of populations
What is sexual reproduction?
The process in which a male and female gamete fuse and combine genetic information to produce an offspring that is genetically different
What is the male and female gamete in human reproduction?
Male: sperm - 23 chromosomes
Female: egg - 23 chromosomes
What is the male and female gamete in plant reproduction?
Male: pollen
Female: egg cells
What is asexual reproduction?
The process in which a cell divides by mitosis to produce two genetically identical offspring
What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?
More variation (survival of the fittest)
What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?
Happens faster
Uses less energy
Only needs one parent
What pair of chromosomes decide if you are female?
XX
What pair of chromosomes decide if you are male?
XY
What is a genotype?
The combination of alleles in an organism
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics of an organism
What conclusions did Mendel find?
Characteristics are decided by hereditary units
Hereditary units are passed down by parents
Hereditary units can be recessive or dominant
How did Mendel find his conclusion?
1st crossing: crossed a dwarf and tall pea plant together, four tall pea offsprings produced
2nd crossing: crossed two of the two tall offsprings together, 3 tall pea plants produced, one dwarf pea plant produced
What is the theory of evolution?
All living organisms descend from simple organisms that have been developing for over three billion years
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Noticed that different organisms in the same species had different phenotypic variation
Organisms with the desired characteristics would be able to survive and reproduce as they would be able to gather resources more effectively
Organisms without desired characteristic would not be able to survive and reproduce
Desired characteristic will be carried down to further generations
Why was Darwin’s theory of evolution controversial?
Went against religious teachings
Darwin could not explain his theory as mutations had not been discovered
There was not enough evidence as there were no studies to show that organisms change over time
What was Lamarck’s theory of evolution?
Organism changes in its lifetime due to environmental factors
These changes would be passed down to offspring
Theory was disproven as experiments showed it was false
What is genetic engineering?
The process in which you transfer a gene responsible for a desired characteristic from one organism to another
Process of genetic engineering
Useful gene is isolated from genome using enzymes and transferred to a vector
Vector is exposed to target organism and gene is inserted
What are the pros of genetically modified crops?
Higher yield
Nutrients can be added to foods
What are the cons of genetically modified crops?
Long term effects are unknown
Transplanted genes can enter the environment and produce herbicide resistant weeds
Reduce biodiversity
What is classification?
The process in which organisms are split into groups
What is the order of groups in the Linnaen system?
Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
Why was the three-domain system made?
Advancements in technology allowed us to find that organisms which we thought were related were not
What are the three domains?
Archaea: prokaryotic cells that are not bacteria
Bacteria
Eukaryota: eukaryotes
What is the order of groups in the three domain system?
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
What is the binomial system?
Every organism is given a two part Latin name
First part: genus
Second part: species
What is a biotic factor?
A living factor that affects the environment
What is an abiotic factor?
A non-living factor that affects the environment
The Water Cycle
1) Water in land and sea evaporates, water in plants evaporate in transpiration - this produces water vapour
2) Water vapour rises and condenses to form clouds
3) Water from clouds fall as precipitation
4) Water drains into sea - cycle is repeated
Decay Cycle
All living things are made up of complex compounds which get passed up the food chain
Complex compounds are returned to environment as waste products
Waste products are decayed/digested by microorganisms
Elements needed to make the complex compounds for plants are returned into the soil - cycle continues
Carbon Cycle
Carbon dioxide is removed from environment by plants in photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide is released when plants respire
Animals eat plants, carbon in plants stored in protein and fat - this moves down the food chain
Carbon dioxide is released when animals respire
Animals produce waste
Animal waste, animal and plant remains are broken down by microorganisms and detritus feeders
Microorganisms and detritus feeders respire and release carbon dioxide
What is compost?
Decomposed organic matter that is used as a plant fertilizer
What factors affect rate of decay?
Temperature
Oxygen levels
Water levels
Number of decay organisms available
What is biodiversity?
The variety of organisms in a given area
How do humans decrease biodiversity?
Increase global warming levels which destory habitats
Deforestation
Producing waste
How do humans try to increase biodiversity?
Set up breeding campaigns so that endangered species can reproduce
Protect and regenerate rare habitats
Introduce hedgegrows to increase variety of plants
Reducing amount of waste going to landfill
Government schemes to decrease deforestation
What is the 1st trophic level?
Producers - plants
What is the 2nd trophic level?
Primary consumers - herbivores
What is the 3rd trophic level?
Secondary consumers - carnivores
What is the 4th trophic level?
Tertiary consumers - carnivores that eat other carnivores
What is the equation for efficiency of biomass transfer?
(transfer to next level / previous level) x100
How is bacteria used to produce human insulin?
Get a plasmid and human chromosome
Take out insulin gene from human chromosome using a restriction enzyme - produces a sticky side
Use restriction enzyme on the plasmid to produce a sticky side
Use ligase enzyme on the insulin gene and plasmid, the sticky sides will bind
Insert the binded gene into a bacterium