genetics, pedigree chart, origin & characteristics of life | terms only
Gregor Mendel
Austrian monk responsible for the laws governing inheritance of traits; developed laws of inheritance while studying the traits in pea plants
particulate inheritance
Mendel stated that physical traits are inherited as “particles” (were actually chromosomes & DNA)
trait
any characteristic that can be passed from parent to offspring
heredity
passing of traits from parent to offspring
genetics
the study of heredity
monohybrid cross
cross involving a single trait like flower color
dihybrid cross
cross involving two traits like flower color & plant height
punnett square
used to help solve genetics problems
alleles
two forms of a gene (either dominant or recessive)
dominant
stronger of two genes expressed in the hybrid; represented by a capital letter
recessive
gene that shows up less often in a cross; represented by a lowercase letter
genotype
gene combination for a trait (e.g. RR, Rr, rr)
phenotype
the physical feature resulting from a genotype (e.g. red, white)
homozygous genotype
gene combination involving 2 dominant (RR) or 2 recessive (rr) genes; also called “pure”
heterozygous genotype
gene combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (Rr); also called hybrid
pisum sativum
scientific name for peas
self-fertilization
fertilization that can occur in the same flower
cross-fertilization
fertilization can occur between flowers
parental (P1) generation
the parental generation in a breeding experiment
F1 generation
the first-generation offspring in a breeding experiment; from breeding individuals from the P1 generation
F2 generation
the second-generation offspring in a breeding experiment; from breeding individuals from the F1 generation
law of dominance
In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation; all the offspring will be heterozygous and express only the dominant trait
law of segregation
During the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other. Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the offspring.
law of independent assortment
Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of one another (This law can be illustrated using dihybrid crosses.)
incomplete dominance
both alleles of a gene are partially expressed in an intermediate phenotype
codominance
both alleles of a gene are distinctly expressed
sex-linked traits
traits (genes) located on the sex chromosomes (i.e. X and Y)
pedigree chart
show a record of the family of an individual to trace a genetic trait or disease over several generations; can be used to study the transmission of a hereditary condition
(1) made up of cells (2) reproduce (3) obtain and use energy (4) homeostasis (5) hereditary (6) responsiveness (7) growth & development (8) adaptation
8 characteristics of life
cells
smallest unit capable of all life functions
unicellular organism
entire organism is one single cell (e.g. bacteria & protozoa)
multicellular organism
organism is made up of many cells that each have specialized functions within the organism
reproduction
the process of producing new organisms of the same type
asexual reproduction
a single parent organism reproducing by itself
sexual reproduction
two different parent organisms contribute genetic information; involves the combination of male & female sex cells
energy
needed for growth, development, damage repair, and reproduction
anabolism
process of building up complex substances from simpler substances (e.g. photosynthesis)
catabolism
breaking down complex substances to simpler substances (e.g. digestion & cellular respiration)
metabolism
total of all chemical reactions in an organism
homeostasis
a stable state of conditions in the body that are necessary for life (e.g. body temperature, blood pressure, pH and water balance)
genes
carry hereditary information; composed of DNA
mutations
changes DNA code and can be passed down from generation to generation
responsiveness
organisms react to various stimuli like light, temperature, odor, sound, gravity, heat, water, and pressure
growth
to get bigger in size
development
involves a change in the physical and physiological change makeup of an organism
adaptation
process of that enables organisms to become better suited to their environment
evolution
species obtain adaptations through _______ over great periods of time
extraterrestrial origin
life originated on another planet outside our solar system
panspermia
“seed” of life exists all over the universe and can be propagated through space, and that life on Earth originated from those seeds
divine creation
Life was put on Earth by divine forces. Creation theories are common to many of the world’s religious and cultures
origin from nonliving matter
Life arose on Earth from inanimate matter after Earth had cooled. Random events probably produced stable molecules that could self-replicate.
Aristotle
proposed the theory of abiogenesis
abiogenesis
idea that living things can arise from nonliving matter (“pneuma”)
spontaneous generation
the formation of living organisms without arising from a similar organism
Lazzaro Spallanzani
boiled soups for almost an hour and sealed containers by melting the slender necks closed; critics said sealed vials did not allow enough air for organisms to survive and that prolonged heated destroyed life force
Francesco Redi
an Italian physician who did an experiment with flies and wide-mouth jars containing meat, hypothesizing that rotten meat does not turn into flies; results disproved the idea of spontaneous generation for larger organisms but people still though microscopic organisms like algae or bacteria could arise that way
John Needham
showed that microorganisms flourished in various soups that have been exposed to the air; claimed that there was a “life force” present in the molecules of all inorganic matter, including air and the oxygen in it, that could cause spontaneous generation to occur; seemed to support spontaneous generation but people didn’t realize that bacteria were already present in his soups
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
began making and looking through simple microscopes which he used (along with a a magnifying glass) to examine water and visualized tiny animals, fungi, algae and single celled protozoa, which he collectively called “animalcules”
microbes
By the end of the 19th century, animalcules were called _______.
Louis Pasteur
received a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences when he published the results of an experiment he did to disprove spontaneous generation in microscopic organisms; his experiment had him put broth into several special S-shaped flasks that trapped any dust particles containing bacteria; he found that the S-shaped flask kept microbes out but let air in which proved microbes only come from other microbes
primordial soup theory
theory by Alexander Oparin that states that possible conditions on the primitive Earth allowed the onset of chemical reaction that led to the formation of other complex organic compounds using simple inorganic compounds
Miller-Urey experiment
A mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, to simulate the version of Earth's primitive, reducing atmosphere proposed by Oparin, was introduced into a 5-liter flask and energized by an electrical discharge apparatus to represent ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
The Clay Hypothesis
proposed in 1985 by Graham Cairns-Smith; The first molecules of life might have met on clay, whose surface not only concentrated these organic compounds together but also helped organize them into patterns
Deep Hot Biosphere Hypothesis
Postulated by Thomas Gold; suggests that life did not begin on the surface of the earth but instead in the porosity of it crust