Cold War Study Guide (Eisenhower → Kennedy Era, c. 1953–1963)

Dwight D Eisenhower

“New Look” defense, massive retaliation, CIA covert action, tried diplomacy (Geneva/Paris), warned about military-industrial complex.

John Foster Dulles

pushed brinkmanship and massive retaliation language/strategy.

Nikita Khrushchev

Soviet leader, rises after 1953; dominant by 1957 de-Stalinization, Berlin pressure, Hungary crackdown, Cuban Missile Crisis.

Ho Chi Minh

communist national leader, key to First indochina War and later Vietnam conflict

Gamal Abdel Nasser

nationalized Suez Canal; major Arab nationalist figure; reason U.S. feared a Middle East “power vacuum.”

Francis Gary Powers

U2 pilot who got shot down May 1 1960

Fidel Castro

led Cuban Revolution (1959); nationalized property; aligned with USSR

Fulgencio Batista (Cuba):

U.S.-backed dictator ousted in 1959.

Che Guevara

revolutionary figure in Cuban revolution

Robert McNamara

JFK’s secratary of defesne linked to Flexible Response strategy

Maxwell D. Taylor

 criticized “New Look,” helped popularize Flexible Response ideas.

Imre Nagy (Hungary)

reform leader in 1956 Hungarian Revolution, removed by Soviets.

János Kádár (Hungary):

installed by Soviets after 1956 invasion.

Camille Chamoun (Lebanon):

requested U.S. help in 1958, test of Eisenhower Doctrine.

Alger Hiss

famous spy/perjury tied to anti-communis + rise of Nixon politics

Julius & Ethel Rosenberg:

executed for passing atomic secrets (Cold War fear).

Roy Cohn

aggressive anti-communist lawyer (linked to McCarthy-era tactics).

Joseph McCarthy

senator who fueled Second Red Scare; collapsed after Army-McCarthy hearings (1954).

Margaret Chase Smith

Republican senator who spoke against McCarthy.

Elia Kazan:

testified to HUAC; controversial.

Ronald Reagan:

estified in HUAC era; later “tear down this wall” symbolism (1980s).

John F. Kennedy

(President, 1961–1963): Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, expanded Vietnam involvement, Flexible Response era thinking.

Brinkmanship (Dullus)

pushing a crisis to the “brink” of nuclear war to force the opponent to back down.

Massive Retaliation (1950s doctrine)

U.S. threatens nuclear response to major Soviet aggression; meant to deter war without huge conventional armies.

Iran (1953) – Operation Ajax

CIA helped overthrow Iran’s government; goal = install pro-U.S. leadership + protect Western access to oil

Guatemala (1954) – Operation PBSUCCESS:

CIA backed a coup to remove Jacobo Árbenz (seen as left-leaning/communist-linked); goal = stop perceived communist spread in Latin America

First Indochina War (1945–1954):

Viet Minh (Ho Chi Minh) vs. French; ends with France expelled.

Domino Theory (Eisenhower-era fear):

if one country falls to communism, neighbors will follow; feared in Asia.

Geneva Conference/Accords (1954):

Vietnam divided at the 17th parallel (Communist North, anti-communist South)
promised 1956 elections to reunify (never happens)
U.S. invests heavily in South → increases chance of later Vietnam War.

Suez Crisis (1956)

• Suez Canal nationalized by Nasser (1956) to fund Aswan Dam.

• Israel + Britain + France invade (Oct. 29, 1956); USSR threatens escalation.

• U.S. pressure forces withdrawal (reopened 1957).

• First major use of UN peacekeeping: UNEF.

• Aftermath: decline of British/French influence; Nasser’s prestige rises as he maintains canal control

Eisenhower Doctrine (Jan. 1957)

• U.S. offers economic + military aid to Middle Eastern countries threatened by armed aggression (especially tied to communism).

• Triggered by fear of a power vacuum after Suez.

• Tested in Lebanon (1958): U.S. sent troops after Chamoun requested help.

Khrushchev & De-Stalinization

• Stalin dies (March 1953) → Khrushchev becomes top leader by 1957.

• De-Stalinization: criticized Stalin, loosened censorship somewhat, released some prisoners, reduced secret police power (to a degree).

• 1956: unrest in Eastern Europe (Hungary crushed; Poland unrest mentioned in notes).

Geneva Summit (1955) + “Open Skies”

mutual aerial inspections/exchange military information to reduce fear. USSR rejects; U.S. still tries diplomacy.

Hungarian Revolution (Oct.–Nov. 1956)

• Oct. 23, 1956 revolt against Soviet domination.

• Imre Nagy reforms; Nov. 1 Hungary leaves Warsaw Pact.

• USSR invades; installs János Kádár; Nagy arrested/executed later.

• U.S. response: no military intervention (avoids WWIII) → Hungarians feel betrayed.

Berlin Crisis (1958–1961)

• Khrushchev ultimatum (1958): West should leave Berlin (pressure due to East Germans fleeing to West Berlin).

• Talks improve at Camp David (1959) but tensions spike after U-2.

Result: barriers → Berlin Wall built 1961 (stops the “brain drain”).

U-2 Spy Plane Incident (May 1, 1960)

• Francis Gary Powers shot down over USSR; captured.

• U.S. first lies (“weather plane”), then Eisenhower admits spy flights and argues they’re needed without Open Skies.

• Major embarrassment; destroys trust and negotiations.

Paris Summit (May 1960)

• Goals: discuss Berlin, nuclear issues (test ban), and rising concerns like Cuba.

• Collapses because U-2 happened 13 days before; Khrushchev demands apology + end to flights; Eisenhower refuses apology → no treaty.

Cuban Revolution (Jan. 1, 1959)

• Castro overthrows Batista; U.S. alarmed.

• Castro nationalizes U.S. property, aligns with USSR; Cuban exiles flee to Miami.

Sets up Bay of Pigs (planned under Eisenhower, executed under JFK).

“Military-Industrial Complex” (Jan. 17, 1961)

Eisenhower farewell address warns about permanent alliance of defense industry + military + government shaping policy and draining domestic priorities.

Flexible Response (early 1960s; McNamara/Taylor influence)

U.S. should have multiple options (diplomatic, economic, conventional military, special forces)—not just “nukes or nothing.”

Bay of Pigs invasion (April 1961):

CIA-trained Cuban exiles land; fails badly; boosts Castro + pushes Cuba closer to USSR.

Operation Mongoose (post-1961):

covert sabotage/assassination attempts to destabilize Castro.

Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct. 1962):

• USSR places missiles in Cuba; U.S. discovers via U-2.

• Kennedy creates EXCOMM; chooses naval “quarantine” (blockade without calling it war).

• Deal: USSR removes missiles from Cuba; U.S. removes Jupiter missiles from Turkey (and pledges not to invade Cuba).

Aftermath: Khrushchev looks weakened; Castro furious.

 Kennedy & Vietnam (early 1960s escalation)

• U.S. increases military advisors (not full-scale U.S. combat yet under JFK).

• Strategic Hamlet Program (early 1960s): move rural villagers into fortified hamlets to cut off Viet Cong influence.

• Political instability: U.S. supports a coup atmosphere; Ngo Dinh Diem assassinated (1963).

• U.S. involvement grows → Johnson escalates after 1964.

Berlin Wall (built 1961; symbol)

• Built by East Germany/Soviets to stop emigration to West Berlin.

• Becomes a Cold War symbol of communism vs capitalism.

• JFK: “Ich bin ein Berliner” (1963) supports West Berlin, reinforces containment.

• Wall falls 1989 (end-stage Cold War symbolism).

Limited Test Ban Treaty (Aug. 5, 1963; in force Oct. 10, 1963)

• Signed by U.S., USSR, UK after Cuban Missile Crisis momentum.

• Bans nuclear tests in atmosphere, outer space, underwater; allows underground tests.

• France and China do not sign

Second Red Scare (late 1940s–1950s):

fear communists are inside the U.S

Loyalty Review Board (Truman era):

screens federal employees; many fired/suspected

Smith Act (1940)

targeted advocacy of violent overthrow; used against Communists.

Dennis v. United States (1951):

Supreme Court upholds convictions of Communist Party leaders. Later decisions narrow this (idea vs action distinction shows up over time).

McCarran Internal Security Act (1950):

communist organizations must register; tighter internal security.

HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee):

• investigations into “subversion.”

Hollywood Ten blacklisted; entertainment industry affected.

Alger Hiss case:

espionage fears; ties to anti-communism politics.

Rosenbergs (executed 1953):

atomic spying case intensifies fear.

Joe McCarthy

claims lists of communists; “guilt by association.”

Army-McCarthy hearings (1954) and Welch exchange → McCarthy discredited; later censured.

Margaret Chase Smith:

publicly criticizes McCarthyism.