AP Psychology Unit 4

Learning

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

John B. Watson

Baby Albert experiment, trained baby to cry when stuffed animal was placed by him (anticipated the crash of a symbol)

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

operant conditioning

learning through the use of positive and negative reinforcements/punishments

B.F. Skinner

trained rats to pull down a lever in order to get food, through the methods of shaping

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcer

any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

continuos reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Extinction (operant conditioning)

decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

generalization (classical conditioning)

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

discrimination (classical conditioning)

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

superstitious behavior

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

observational learning

learning by observing others (social learning)

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

antisocial behavior

behavior that either damages interpersonal relationships or is culturally undesirable

Contingencies

events with uncertain outcomes that may represent potential liabilities

insight learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution

latent learning

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Tolman

Latent learning; cognitive maps

Rescorla

learned helplessness