Research methods 3

What is reliability?

CONSISTENCY of the test/measurement/research

What is external reliability?

How well research can be replicated at another time and/or by other researchers

What does it mean if smth is said to be reliable?

Some results are repeatedly found

More trust in test, increasing scientific nature of it

What is the test-retest method?

Test/questionnaire/interview given on atleast two different occasions to same sample of p’s

Two independent set of scores + compared

Similar results- reliable

What is the inter-rater method, what correlation coefficient is reliable, and what to do if it is lower?

Observations of two or more observers who are observing same event + making recordings independently

Two sets of results are correlated to see the similarity

Reliability co-efficient from Spearman’s Rho is calculated

If +0.8, then deemed reliable

If the correlation co-efficient is lower- researchers need to redesign their test e.g. check errors possible with questions/categories etc.

What is validity?

The ACCURACY of research in measuring behaviour

What is face validity and give an example?

If it looks like what it measures

Appears to have a meaningful measurement of the variable, then valid

E.g. ‘I have recently thought of killing myself’

Obvious face validity of as an item measuring suicidal cognitions + useful when measuring symptoms of depression

What is concurrent validity?

Access validity of newly designed test or scale

Comparing new test with pre-existing one that is well established and a valid test of the same variable

How to improve the reliability and validity of questionnaires?

Reliability:

Remove or reword leading/ambiguous questions

Replace some ambiguous questions which may be misinterpreted with less ambiguous questions

Validity:

SDB- make it anonymous

How to improve the reliability and validity of interviews?

Reliability:

Same interviewer each time

More than one interviewer- make sure they’re properly trained

Structured, controlled interview rather than unstructured

Validity:

Interviewer bias- use same interviewer

How to improve the reliability and validity of experiments?

Reliability:

All variables are operationalised

Procedures and instructions are standardised

Validity:

Participant variables- matched pairs/random allocation

Situational variables- standardisation

DC- single blind

Experimenter bias- double blind

Order effect- counterbalancing

How to improve the reliability and validity of observations?

Reliability:

Behavioural categories- operationalised, discreet, don’t overlap

More than one observer- train them together- check how behaviours are recorded

Validity:

Observer bias- double blind + operationalised DV

What is informed consent?

Investigators should inform the p’s of the aims and objectives of the research, and explain aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to take part

P’s can then make an informed judgement on whether to take part or not

How to deal with issues of informed consent?

Consent form- should be provided before the investigation detailing all relevant info that might affect an individual’s decision to take part

Prior general consent- p’s consent and agree to being misled during the study, but aren’t informed of the true aims

Presumptive consent- a group of ppl who are similar to the p’s are asked whether they would agree to take part in the study. If they say yes- we presume this would be the case for the real ps’s

What is right to withdraw?

P’s should be made aware they can leave a study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part

P’s should also be aware that they can withdraw their data after the investigation is complete

How to deal with issues of right to withdraw?

Brief p’s at the start about their right to withdraw and also remind them during the investigation

In the debrief at the end again, remind them of the right to withdraw their data if they wish

What is the protection of participants?

Investigators must ensure that they protect p’s from physical and mental harm during the investigation

Risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life

How to deal with issues of protection of participants?

If p’s experience physical or mental harm, the investigator should remove them from the investigation

P’s should be reminded of their right to withdraw if they are experiencing harm of any kind

P’s should be able to contact the investigator afterwards if they experience any harm

What is the avoidance of deception?

Investigators should not intentionally withhold info, be untruthful or misled p’s if they are likely to be upset/distressed by this

How to deal with the issue of avoidance of deception?

Debrief p’s- p’s should be given info regarding the true aims, procedures, what their data will be used for, once the investigation is finished

They should be offered the right to withdraw themselves and their data if they choose to

P’s should leave the investigation in the same state as they entered it

If there are issues, psychologists should offer support

What is confidentiality?

P’s have a right to have their data protected

Their data is confidential and shouldn’t be disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance

P’s should remain anonymous, unless otherwise agreed

How to deal with issue of confidentiality?

Researchers should record no personal p details to maintain anonymity

P’s should be referred to by number, initials when research is published or pseudonyms

What is the title?

A concise but informative sentence (or two) which lets the reader know exactly what the report is about

What is the abstract?

A brief summary of the entire report after the investigation is completed

Should be self-contained, clear and concise synopsis briefly referencing past research related to the investigation, methods used, the findings, conclusions and implications

What is the introduction?

A section that introduces the reader to the background of the study

Will make reference to past research + relevant theories

Explains ideas behind research being undertaken + makes specific hypotheses and fully operationalising variables

What is the method?

How study was conducted- enough info to allow study to be replicated (ensure reliability + validity can be checked) + give research method being used

Design- experimental design + control measure

P’s- sample + sampling technique

Procedure- how p’s were allocated, conditions, instructions, data collection method

Could also mention ethics

What is the results?

Reports findings of study- reference to how data is analysed + summary of results

Descriptive stats + dispersion + inferential stats

What is the discussion?

Summary of the results and explanation of what findings actually mean

Reference to past research + whether findings of current research are similar or different

Implications, evaluative comments and suggestions for future research

What are appendices?

Raw data given + examples of written instructions or methods of gathering data

What are references?

Cited evidence + opportunity to locate original details of study, check for plagiarism + allow credit for author’s work

How to write reference for books?

Authors surname, initial. (year of publication).Title.Place of publication:Publisher

How to write a reference for journals?

Authors surname,initial. (year of publication). Article title. Journal title. Volume, number, pages.