Chapter 3: Alternatives to Experimentation: Nonexperimental design

Phenomenology

• the description of an individual’s immediate experience

• Antecedents are not manipulated, and data may consist of any immediate experience; no constraints are imposed.

Johannes Purkinje

• was interested in light deepened; reds appeared black, but blues retained their hue.

Purkinje Effect

• An example of how phenomenological observation (noticing colors change as light fades) led to physiological discoveries.

William James

• a psychologist and philosopher who is often considered one of the early phenomenologists.

  • dealt with basic psychological issues, including habits, emotions, consciousness, and the stream of thoughts

• children playing

• chimps parenting

• life in a gang

Nonexperimental methods are used to study behaviors in natural settings;

• case of multiple personality

• presidential election

Nonexperimental methods are used to explore unique or rare occurrences;

• attitudes

• opinions

• preferences

Nonexperimental methods are used to sample personal information;

• single individuals

• large groups of people

Nonexperimental can be conducted in either;

Internal validity

The degree to which a research design allows us to make causal statements.

External validity

Generalizability or applicability to people and situations outside the research setting.

• degree of manipulation of antecedent behaviors

• degree of imposition of units

All approaches to research can be described along two or major dimensions;

• Phenomenology

• Case study

• Field study

• Archival study

• Qualitative study

Five common nonexperimental approaches used by psychologists:

Case study

descriptive record of a single individual’s experiences, or behaviors, or both, kept by an outside observer.

Little Hans

Freud’s case study that is an example of how an individual case may suggest a developmental process

Deviant Case Analysis

deviant and normal individual are compared for significant differences.

• few subjects

• not able to observe an individual directly all the time

• retrospective data

• failure to mention important information

• reliant on retrospective data

limitations of case study

retrospective data

data collected in the present that are based on recollections of past events

Field study

nonexperimental approaches used in the field or in real-life settings.

Naturalistic Observation Study

the technique of observing behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural settings.

Dian Fossey

records the most well-known naturalistic observation and studied the family life and social bonds of rare mountain gorillas living in the Virunga Volcano mountains of central Africa

Wheeler

spent a year observing Chinese residents of Hong Kong and noted many interesting differences between these Chinese and typical Americans.

Systematic Observation

researcher uses a prearranged strategy for recording observations in which each observation is recorded using specific rules or guidelines so that observations are more objective.

Intersect

developed for scoring various kinds of teacher-student interactions

Reactivity

tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of an observer’s presence.

Unobtrusive measures

behavioral indicators can be observed without subject’s knowledge

Participant-Observer study

researcher actually becomes part of the group being studied

Archival study

a descriptive research method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose

• source of inferences, hypothesis, and theories

• source for developing therapy techniques

• allow the study of rare phenomena

• provide exceptions, or counterinstances, to accepted bias, theories or practices

• have persuasive and motivational value

five major purposes of case study by Kazdin (2003)

• Naturalistic Observation Studies

• Participant-Observer study

different types of field studies

Qualitative research

relies on words rather than numbers for the data being collected

Paradigm

set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time.

Empirical Phenomenology

rely on the researcher’s own experience or on experiential data provided by other sources