Key Concepts of Renaissance, Reformation, and Early Modern Empires

Renaissance

The Renaissance was a period characterized by a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, culture, and civic virtue.

Humanism

Humanism was a focus on individuals rather than God.

Elements of Renaissance Art

Art during this period emphasized human concerns, piety, and the use of classical subjects, drawing on the patronage of wealthy families and the church.

Protestant Reformation

The efforts of various reform movements, including those led by Martin Luther, are collectively known as the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a monk who challenged the Catholic Church by nailing his 95 Theses to a church door and advocating for sola fide, or faith alone, as the basis for salvation.

Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution refers to a period starting in the early 1600s when scientific thinking, based on reason and empirical methods, gained popularity in northern Europe.

Empiricism

Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from sensed experience, from what you observe through your experience, including through experiments.

Tamerlane

Tamerlane, also known as Timur the Lame, was a Mongol-Turkic ruler who led an army from Samarkand to make ruthless conquests in Persia and India in the late 14th century.

Manchu

The Manchu people from Manchuria seized power in 1644, establishing the Qing Dynasty, and aimed to make their culture dominant in China.

Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty ruled China from 1644 until 1911, and was established by the Manchu people who often put their own people in top government positions.

Kangxi

Emperor Kangxi was one of China's longest-reigning emperors (ruled 1661-1722) who presided over a period of stability, incorporated areas like Taiwan and Mongolia into the empire, and imposed a protectorate over Tibet.

Qianlong

Emperor Qianlong (ruled 1736-1796) was a Qing ruler who expanded the empire by annexing Xinjiang and later faced internal corruption and external conflicts.

Qing Expansion

Qing expansion included taking control of lands such as Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia, incorporating these areas into the empire, as well as initiating military campaigns in Xinjiang.

Matteo Ricci

Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit missionary who, along with others, impressed the Chinese court elite with his scientific and technical learning.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was the largest and most enduring of the great Islamic empires of this period, extending into modern-day Turkey, the Balkan areas of Europe, and parts of North Africa and Southeast Asia.

Safavid Empire

The Safavid Empire was a dynasty rooted in Sufism that rose to power in Persia in the 1500s due to its land-based military might and eventually relied on strict adherence to Shi'a Islam.

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was founded in India by Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, and became one of the richest and best-governed states in the world, especially under Akbar.

Ghazi Ideal

The ghazi ideal was a model for warrior life that blended the cooperative values of nomadic culture with the willingness to serve as a holy fighter for Islam.

Jizya

The jizya was a tax required of all non-Muslim subjects of the Delhi Sultanate and was also paid by Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Osman (Ottoman)

Osman was the founder of the dynasty that established the Ottoman Empire in the 1300s.

Mehmed II (Ottoman)

Mehmed II, known as the Conqueror, established the Ottoman Empire's capital after his forces besieged Constantinople in 1453 and later strengthened the Ottoman navy.

Suleiman I (Ottoman)

Suleiman I (ruled 1520-1566) led the Ottoman Empire at its peak, with his armies overrunning Hungary and his navy taking control of Tripoli in North Africa.

Devshirme

Devshirme was a system in the Ottoman Empire through which Christian boys were forcibly recruited to serve in the military and government bureaucracy.

Janissaries

The Janissaries were elite forces in the Ottoman army consisting of Christian boys recruited through the devshirme system.

Suleymaniye Mosque/Sinan Pasha

The magnificent Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul was ordered by Suleiman I to be constructed as a testament to the ruler's power.

Ismail (Safavid)

Ismail was an early Safavid military hero who conquered most of Persia and Iraq and was proclaimed shah in 1501.

Abbas I (Safavid)

Shah Abbas I (ruled 1588-1629), also known as Abbas the Great, was the Safavid ruler who relied on European weaponry and advisers while presiding over the empire at its height.

Isfahan

Isfahan was the capital of the Safavid Empire that was sacked by Afghan forces in 1722, contributing to the dynasty's rapid decline.

Akbar (Mughal)

Akbar (ruled 1556-1605) was Babur's grandson and the most capable Mughal ruler who achieved stability and tolerance by establishing an efficient government and ending the jizya tax.

Aurangzeb (Mughal)

Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707) was the Mughal ruler who tried to increase the size of the empire and eliminate Hindu influences, which led to conflicts and peasant uprisings.

Tax Farming

Tax farming was a system used by the Ottomans where tax farmers paid an annual fixed sum to the government and then recouped the amount by collecting money or goods from residents.

Zamindar

Zamindars were paid government officials in the Mughal Empire in charge of duties like taxation, but later kept more taxes and raised personal armies.

Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan (ruled 1628-1658) was the Mughal ruler who built the magnificent Taj Mahal as a tomb for his wife.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is a magnificent architectural accomplishment built by the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife.

Tokugawa Japan

The Tokugawa shogunate established a centralized government in the early 17th century by reorganizing the governance of Japan and controlling the formerly feudal daimyo.

Daimyo

Daimyo were powerful landholding aristocrats in feudal Japan who, although often independent rulers over their fiefdoms, were eventually forced under the centralized control of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Ivan IV

Ivan IV (ruled 1547-1584), known as Ivan the Terrible, was crowned tsar of Russia in 1547 and immediately began expanding the Russian border eastward using gunpowder.

Romanov Dynasty

The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil following Ivan IV's death.

Peter the Great

Peter I (ruled 1682-1725), also known as Peter the Great, consolidated power in Russia by creating provinces, reorganizing the government, and closely participating in church affairs.

Boyars

The boyars were the noble landowning class in Russia who stood at the top of the social pyramid and were controlled by rulers such as Ivan IV.

Serfs

Serfs were the most numerous class of peasants in Russia who were bound to the land and had little personal freedom in exchange for protection from a noble.