Holocaust Test Terms

Theodosian Code

438CE, Roman Empire. A set of laws that regulated jewish self governance under Christian rule, including prohibitions on Jews holding military positions, circumcising Christians, and holding public office. Matters in Holocaust history because it laid the foundation for institutionalized anti-semitism by legally marginalizing Jews, influencing future discriminatory policies like those of Nazi Germany.

Deicide

First emerged in 3-4th century, sometimes even earlier. Means murder of God. The accusation that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus Christ, labeling them as "God-killers." Notion that since Jews killed Jesus, they are capable of anything; are they even human? This belief originated in early Christian writings and persisted throughout medieval antisemitism.

Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great)

6th-Century (Italian) pope who advocated for the persecution but not the outright extermination of Jews. His writings helped shape medieval Christian attitudes toward Jews.

Fourth Lateran Council

In 1215, this was a church council in Rome that mandated Jews to wear distinguishing yellow badges and special hats (for men, women wore different garments), marking them as different from Christians. This was part of broader antisemitic policies and created a visual segregation of Jews. Initially proposed for Muslims but only Jews were forced.

1144 Norwich

Refers to the first recorded instance of the blood libel in Norwich, England, where Jews were accused of ritually murdering a Christian boy named William. More claims emerge in France and Germany. Church officially denied the rumours but still caused anti-Jewish violence.

Host Desecration

A medieval accusation that Jews would desecrate the Eucharist wafers, believed to contain the body of Christ, by stabbing them, pushed by the Church. In 1215, it was said that the wafer isn't just representing Jesus' body but it is him. This myth fueled widespread antisemitic violence and persecution across Europe, and its effects were felt even into the 20th century, with incidents such as those in 1930s Poland.

Judensau

A derogatory and grotesque medieval image depicting Jews in obscene relations with pigs, symbolizing impurity and reinforcing antisemitic ideas, especially in German-speaking areas during the 13th century.

Expulsion from England.

1290, England. King Edward I expelled all Jews from England due to widespread antisemitic beliefs and economic factors such as resentment over Jewish moneylending which was both necessary because Christians were not allowed to and causing resentment due to interest rates. Marked the beginning of a nearly 400-year absence of Jews in England

Expulsion from Spain

1492 in Spain. The edict by Ferdinand and Isabella that expelled Jews from Spain, largely motivated by religious intolerance and the desire for religious unity after the Reconquista. The expulsion uprooted an estimated 200,000 Jews, many of whom fled to the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, and other parts of Europe.

"On Jews and their Lies"

1543, written by Martin Luther, a German pamphlet. In this pamphlet, he viciously attacked jews, calling for the burning of synagogues, destruction of religious texts, and their expulsion. Stark contrast of past opinion of tolerating Jews and pushing them to convert.

Redemptive Antisemitism

A form of antisemitism that seeks to justify the persecution or extermination of Jews as a necessary act to "save" society or humanity from Jewish influence. Emerged in Germany during the late 19th century and intensified in the early 20th century. Term coined later by scholar Saul Friedländer.

Wilhelm Marr

A 19th century German writer who coined the term "antisemitism" and promoted the idea of a Jewish conspiracy to dominate the world, framing his hatred of Jews in racial scientific terms, rather than religious terms. In 1871 Jews got rights and Marr claims that Jews are particularly gifted and germans are under threat and are weaker and need to defend themselves so they need to assassinate them. Jews cannot assimilate into German culture. Founded the League of Antisemites (Antisemiten-Liga) in 1879 which was the first organized political movement in Europe that explicitly promoted antisemitism as a central ideology.

Verdjudung

A German term meaning "Jewisfication," used in antisemitic rhetoric to describe the supposed takeover of society by Jews.

"The Jews in Music"

An 1850 essay by composer Richard Wagner, accusing Jews of lacking creativity and being unable to truly contribute to German music and culture. Hitler is a massive follower and reflected antisemitic views.

Adolf Stocker

A German protestant theologian who founded the Christian Social Workers' party in the 1870s. The original goal was to promote Christian ideals and social reform but when that didn't work, shifted to blaming social and economic issues to Jews. Adolf Stoecker claimed Jews controlled the country and press, and in "What We Demand of Modern Jewry," he called for limiting Jewish influence and used antisemitism to gain working-class support.

First Antisemites' Congress

An 1882 meeting of over 300 antisemitic intellectuals in an upscale hotel in Dresden (Germany), where they discussed strategies for promoting antisemitism across Europe. The meeting featured Adolf Stoecker as the keynote speaker and focused on building a network of antisemitic figures, sharing ideas, raising funds for propaganda, and pushing for a Christian alliance to urgently advance and normalize antisemitism.

Thule Society

A German antisemitic and anti-Weimar Republic group that pledged to destroy the Jews founded in 1918. It published the Munich Observer and supported the German Workers' Party (DAP), though it remained small and exclusive, with only a few thousand upper-middle-class, male members by invitation only.

Dietrich Eckart

A German nationalist and early member of the Nazi Party who played a key role in influencing Hitler and shaping the party's early ideology. Active in the early 1920s, he mentored Hitler and introduced him to influential circles in Munich. Hitler honored him in Mein Kampf, dedicating the book to him and acknowledging his influence on his worldview.

Lanz van Liebenfels

Lanz von Liebenfels (1874-1954), an Austrian former monk (was kicked out), founded the magazine Ostara, which promoted racial purity, Aryan supremacy, and antisemitism, advocating for the superiority of the so-called "blond race" over other races. His writings and ideology significantly influenced Adolf Hitler and the emerging Nazi movement, as he argued for the extermination or enslavement of inferior races and sought to unite "Aryan nations" against perceived threats such as socialism, communism, and feminism. Through Ostara, von Liebenfels disseminated his radical ideas, emphasizing a worldview that contributed to the racial ideology that underpinned the Nazi regime. German woman should submit fully to their husbands

Ostara

A racist and antisemitic magazine from 1905 to 1917 published by Lanz von Liebenfels, which promoted Aryan supremacy and the need to exterminate or enslave inferior races. Ostara was the first representation of swastika. Writings and ideology significantly influenced Adolf Hitler and the emerging Nazi movement, as he argued for the extermination or enslavement of inferior races and sought to unite "Aryan nations" against perceived threats such as socialism, communism, and feminism.

Karl Lueger

In 1897 was elected mayor of Vienna. Was a social reformist, antisemitic, very appealing to his voters (great orator) and someone who Hitler admired. From Lueger, Hitler learns how to build a successful political machine (how to be a good speaker) and integrate antisemitic beliefs. Was a part of the Christian Social Party

Georg von Schnerer

Pan-Germans, for the unification of all ethnic germans. Was antisemitic, was wanted to expel Jews from Germany, limit them in professions, etc. Only had 3-4% of popularity within Austria and hated the Catholic Church. Uses the terms Führer, Heil. From Schnerer Hitler learns how to avoid his mistakes (the church and having too many opponents).

Battle of Tannenberg

The Battle of Tannenberg took place from August 23 to 30, 1914, in the contemporary area of Olsztyn, Poland. Led by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, the battle marked a significant victory for the German army and served as a catalyst for Hindenburg's later rise to power, ultimately leading to his appointment of Hitler as Chancellor. The battle's memorial, established in 1927, became a symbol for the Nazis as they sought to avenge past defeats and foster a narrative of national pride, contributing to the broader context of antisemitism and militarism leading up to the Holocaust.

Paul von Hindenburg

Paul von Hindenburg was the commander of the German army during World War I in the Battle of Tannenberg and later became the President of Germany in 1925; he is notably remembered for appointing Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in 1933

Dolchstoss

"Stab-in-the-back" myth that emerged in post-World War I Germany, alleging that Jews had betrayed the German army by shirking their military duties and contributing to unrest at home. This narrative falsely linked the actions of a small number of Jewish activists to the broader societal unrest, leading to the scapegoating of all Jews for Germany's military failures. The myth perpetuated the idea that Jewish soldiers were somehow "feminized" and less capable, further entrenching antisemitic sentiments and justifying blame for the nation's struggles in the aftermath of the war.

Kurt Eisner

A Jewish socialist leader who led the Bavarian Revolution of 1918 before being assassinated in 1919. His death fueled tensions and his Jewish identity was used by antisemites to further their agendas, adding to the growing antisemitism of the time.

Jew Count

This count, performed in 1916, was prompted by antisemitic rumours claiming that Jews were not pulling their weight in the war effort and were disproportionately avoiding front-line duty. This was a great insult to German jews who were proportionally involved in the military, but the results were never published. Antisemitic newspapers published fake statistics perpetuating the false narrative that Jews lacked commitment to the war, reinforcing antisemitic views, despite the reality that many Jews were serving in difficult and dangerous positions.

Versailles Treaty

This treaty in 1919 following the end of WW1 concerned territory (Rhineland, Alsace and Lorraine, Danzig(Gdansk) and colonies). Concerning domestic affairs, there was a restricted military (no more than 100000 men), no airforce, tanks, or submarine. There was also a guilt clause (article 231) that stated Germany and its allies are responsible for causing the war, justifying the heavy reparation imposed on Germany.

Article 231

also known as the guilt clause within the treaty of Versailles (1919) which stated that Germany and its allies are responsible for causing the war, justifying the heavy reparation imposed on Germany.

February 24, 1920

The date that the NSDAP's (Nazi) 25 point program was published, outlining their core platform.

1. Demand unification of Germans

2. Equality of rights for the German people in respect to the other nations; abrogation of the peace treaties of Versailles and St. Germain.

3. Demand land and territory (colonies) for the sustenance of their people and colonization for their surplus population

4. Only a member of the German race can be a citizen (no Jew can be a member of the race)

Landsberg

Following the failed coup de état (Beer Hall Putsch) with Hitler, this was the nice-looking prison that hitler was incarcerated for 264 days in 1924. During his time here, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his antisemitic ideology and political aspirations.

SA

Also known as Brownshirts originated in Munich in 1925 as a paramilitary wing of the Nazi party being 'bodyguards' It played a key role in Hitler's rise to power by intimidating opponents and protecting Nazi rallies. Under the leadership of Ernst Röhm, there were nearly 3 million members (more than allowed under the treaty of Versailles). Despite Röhm's close friendship with Hitler, rumours of his disloyalty led to hit execution during the Night of Long Knives in 1934, when Hitler purged the SA leadership.

Mein Kampf

Adolf Hitler's autobiographical and ideological manifesto written during his imprisonment in Landsberg in 1924 (published in 2 volumes in 1925 and 1926). In his manifesto, he outlines his political views, including his antisemitism and plans for the future of Germany

Article 48

This article of the Weimar constitution was used frequently during the political instability of the early 1930s, particularly between 1930 and 1933 to dissolve the parliament and call for new elections when a stable coalition could not be formed. Hitler and the Nazi party exploited this provision after he became Chancellor in 1933, using it consolidate power and suspend civil rights, leading to the establishment of his dictatorship.

knight of the long knives

June 30, 1934 - July 2 1934. Hitler eliminated many SA leaders (including Rohm & other political opponents) It marked the consolidation of Hitler's control over the Nazi Party and the military.

Hitler's second book

Written in Germany, following the 1928 elections, but published in 1961. Zweites Buch written after the Nazi Party had a poor showing in the 1928 German elections. Hitler believed that the public didn't understand his ideas well, so the book discussed his thoughts on foreign policy. He continued making claims that Jewish people are dangerous and explained that the United States was Germany's greatest potential enemy. This book indicated that in order for Germany to gain global power, Germany would need to fight against the U.S. This book was not published in Hitler's lifetime, and since it was unedited, it offered a glimpse into Hitler's uncensored thoughts.

The Enabling Act

March 24 1933. This act granted Hitler dictatorial powers by allowing his government to enact laws without the Reichstag's approval. The Nazis secured the required 2/3 majority through violence and intimidation. This law fundamentally altered the parliamentary system, giving Hitler the power to bypass parliament and consolidate Nazi control over Germany, marking the end of the Weimar Republic's democracy.

Nuremberg Laws

1935 laws introduced on September 15, 1953 at the Nuremberg Rally were a set of antisemitic laws that stripped Jews of German citizenship and prohibited marriages or sexual relations between Jews and Aryans. The Reich citizenship law redefined Jewish identity based on racial ancestry, categorizing Jews as subjects rather than citizens, depriving them of civil rights. The Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour aimed to preserve racial purity by criminalizing intermarriage and sexual relations between Jews and Germans, reinforcing segregation and further marginalizing the Jewish population in Nazi Germany.

Dachau

First concentration camp in Germany (near Munich), established in 1933. Initially used to imprison political opponents, later became a model for other concentration camps where Jews, Roma, and other targeted groups were held.

Rassenschande

Meaning "racial defilement," this Nazi term referred to the prohibition of relationships between Jews and non-Jews, enforced by the Nuremberg Laws​. Public shaming was common, with names and address of those accused were often displayed, leading to harassment in everyday life. Example: Hamburg 1935.

Ritualization of Persecution.

In the second half of the 1930s, the Nazi regime employed systematic and ritualistic methods to persecute Jews and other minorities, manifesting through parades and fairs that exaggerated Jewish features and mocked their identities. These public displayed reinforced antisemitic ideology, making the identification of Jews a visible aspect of daily life and contributing to a broader culture of intolerance and violence.

"The Poisonous Mushroom" 1938

Written by Ernst Heimer, Der Fiftpillz was a children's book that served as a tool of Nazi propaganda, designed to indoctrinate young Germans with antisemitic beliefs. it employs rhymes and vivid, disturbing imagery to portray Jews as dangerous and deceitful, emphasizing their physical appearance to install fear and hatred in impressionable minds.

Münich Conference

A meeting of the world's largest powers, except the Soviet Union, in September 1938 that permitted the German (Nazi) annexation of portions of territory in Czechoslovakia, along the countries borders, inhibited mostly by German speakers. This territory became known as the "Sudetenland." Today, it is widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement toward Germany, ultimately emboldening the Nazi regime. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face of demands made by Adolf Hitler. The Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses and banks were situated there, and thus Czechoslovakia felt betrayed by the UK and France.

Evian Conference

in 1938, Evian, France.

Meeting of 32 countries at this international conference to discuss the growing crisis of refugee Jews fleeing Nazi persecution. Most countries, including the US & Canada (Accepted due to pressure of UK), refused to accept more refugees, which demonstrated the global reluctance to confront the Jewish plight. "No country will be expected to accept to receive a greater number of emigrants than is permitted by its existing legislation"

Aryanization

This process, often described as "legalized theft," occurred in two stages. Initially (1935-1837), under the guise of voluntary measures, new laws required Jewish businesses to have non-Jewish partners, leading to forced sales at undervalued prices; by 1938, about 70% of the 100,000 Jewish businesses that existed in Germany when Hitler came to power had vanished. Following 1938, forced transfer of Jewish enterprises to non-Jews became the norm, completely excluding Jews from economic activity and drastically reducing Jewish assets from 10-12 billion Reichsmarks in 1933 to 5-6 billion by 1938.

Reichstag Fire

Feb 7, 1933. An arson attack on the Reichstag building in Berlin, Nazis blamed communists for the first and used it as a pretext to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree which suspended civil liberties and allowed for the arrest of political opponents.

Jozef Pilsudski

A prominent Polish statesman and military leader, Piłsudski played a crucial role in restoring Poland's independence after World War I, serving as the Chief of State from 1918 to 1922 and later as the de facto leader of the country until his death in 1935. Known for his pragmatic approach, he pursued a relatively tolerant policy towards Jews during his leadership, recognizing their contributions to Polish society and allowing for cultural and political representation. His tenure marked a period where, despite rising antisemitism in Europe, the Jewish community in Poland experienced a degree of stability and freedom, which would later be challenged by the growing nationalistic sentiments in the 1930s.

Roman Dmowski

A prominent Polish nationalist and political leader, Dmowski was a key figure in the early 20th-century Polish independence movement. He was deeply antisemitic, advocating for the limitation of Jewish influence in Poland and promoting an ethnically homogeneous Polish state. As a founder of the National Democratic Party, Dmowski believed that Jewish presence threatened Polish national identity and culture, leading him to support policies that marginalized Jews economically, socially, and politically. His rhetoric contributed to rising antisemitism in Poland, influencing public opinion and political discourse during a critical period of nation-building in the aftermath of World War I.

Kulturbund

Established in 1933, this was a response to the exclusion of Jews from mainstream cultural life in Nazi Germany, which prohibited them from attending cinemas, concerts, etc. This organization aimed to provide Jewish artists, musicians, and writers with opportunities to perform and share their work, employing around 2,000 individuals who had been barred from the regular entertainment industry. While the shows mirrored those of the broader cultural scene, the Gestapo monitored the performances to ensure no anti-Nazi content was included, allowing for a semblance of normal life within the confines of growing persecution.

Leo Beck

1872-1956. Prominent German scholar and chief rabbi of Germany. Initially able to operate within the system, he was appointed the National Representative of Jews in Germany in 1933, which he later had to modify to reflect the community's precarious status. Baeck advocated for the rights and welfare of Jews, promoting self-help institutions and practical advice, particularly targeting Jewish women, encouraging them to assimilate as much as possible to survive. As conditions worsened, he emphasized the importance of learning new trades and languages, preparing Jews for potential emigration, while striving to preserve their cultural and religious identity amidst the growing persecution.

Anschluss

March 12, 1938. The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany. Celebrated by many Austrians and it marked the beginning of the persecution of Austrian Jews

Kristallnacht

Nov 9-10, 1938 in Germany and Austria. Known as the "Night of Broken Glass", Nazi paramilitary forces attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues.