Diabetes and Endocrine System - Vocabulary Flashcards

100 vocabulary flashcards covering diabetes types, symptoms, treatments, pharmacology, and clinical management drawn from the lecture notes.

Diabetes mellitus

A group of diseases involving abnormalities in fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism that lead to hyperglycemia and complications such as neuropathy and microvascular damage.

Hyperglycemia

High blood glucose level.

Hypoglycemia

Low blood glucose level.

Glycemia

The level of glucose in the blood.

Insulin

Hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood glucose by promoting cellular glucose uptake.

Glucagon

Hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood glucose by stimulating liver glucose release.

Pancreas

Gland that produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar.

Beta cells

Insulin-producing cells in the pancreatic islets.

Type 1 diabetes

Autoimmune destruction of beta cells, leading to little or no insulin production.

Type 2 diabetes

Insulin resistance with progressive insulin deficiency, often linked to obesity and inactivity.

Gestational diabetes

Diabetes diagnosed during pregnancy that increases future risk of diabetes.

Secondary diabetes

Diabetes caused by other medical conditions or medications.

Autoimmune destruction

Immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic beta cells.

Insulin resistance

Tissues respond poorly to insulin, causing higher blood glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

Liver production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver.

Polyuria

Excessive urination.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst.

Polyphagia

Excessive hunger.

Neuropathy

Nerve damage associated with diabetes.

Peripheral neuropathy

Nerve damage in extremities, often causing burning or pain.

Microvascular complications

Small vessel damage affecting eyes, kidneys, and nerves in diabetes.

HbA1c (A1C)

Glycated hemoglobin; reflects average blood glucose over ~3 months.

Fasting blood sugar

Blood glucose measured after an overnight fast.

Lispro (rapid-acting insulin)

A rapid-acting insulin analog used around meals.

Aspart (rapid-acting insulin)

A rapid-acting insulin analog used around meals.

Glargine (Lantus)

A long-acting insulin used to provide basal insulin coverage.

Detemir

A long-acting insulin used to provide basal insulin coverage.

Mixed insulin (70/30)

A premixed insulin combination of rapid-acting and intermediate-acting insulin.

Premixed insulin

Insulin combination formulations used to simplify regimens.

Insulin therapy

Use of insulin to control blood glucose in diabetes.

Metformin

Biguanide; first-line drug for type 2 diabetes; reduces hepatic glucose production and improves insulin sensitivity.

Biguanide

Class of drugs that includes metformin.

GI side effects (metformin)

Nausea, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort; metallic taste associated with metformin.

Lactic acidosis risk (metformin)

Rare but serious risk, linked to renal/hepatic impairment and other conditions.

Vitamin B12 malabsorption

Metformin may cause B12 deficiency with long-term use; monitor levels.

Renal clearance (metformin)

Metformin is eliminated by the kidneys; renal function must be considered before use.

Metformin dosing titration

Start low and increase by 500 mg/day every 2 weeks toward about 1500 mg/day.

Cochrane review (metformin)

Review finding no increased lactic acidosis risk with metformin versus other meds; risk linked to comorbidity.

Tolbutamide

First-generation sulfonylurea.

Glipizide

Second-generation sulfonylurea.

Glyburide (glibenclamide)

Second-generation sulfonylurea.

Sulfonylurea mechanism

Increase insulin secretion by closing ATP-sensitive potassium channels in beta cells.

ATP-sensitive potassium channel

Channel that regulates beta-cell membrane potential affecting insulin release.

Beta-cell depolarization

Membrane depolarization triggers calcium influx and insulin secretion.

Calcium influx (beta cells)

Calcium entry into beta cells triggers insulin exocytosis.

GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1)

Incretin that increases insulin, decreases glucagon, slows gastric emptying, and reduces appetite.

Incretins

Gut hormones that enhance insulin secretion after meals.

GLP-1 mimetics

Synthetic GLP-1 receptor agonists used to lower blood glucose.

Exenatide

GLP-1 receptor agonist injected subcutaneously before meals.

DPP-4 inhibitors

Drugs that block the DPP-4 enzyme, increasing endogenous incretins.

Sitagliptin (Januvia)

A DPP-4 inhibitor.

DPP-4 inhibitor examples

Drugs that inhibit DPP-4 to increase incretin activity (e.g., sitagliptin).

SGLT2 inhibitors

Drugs that block glucose reabsorption in the kidney, increasing urinary glucose excretion.

Jardiance (empagliflozin)

An SGLT2 inhibitor.

Hypoglycemia signs (general)

Shakiness, sweating, confusion; signs of low blood glucose.

Hypoglycemia signs: shakiness

A common early symptom of low blood glucose.

Hypoglycemia signs: diaphoresis

Sweating associated with low blood glucose.

Hypoglycemia management: oral glucose

If awake, provide fast-acting sugar by mouth.

Hypoglycemia management: orange juice

A common fast-acting carbohydrate for conscious patients.

Hypoglycemia management: glucagon

Injectible hormone to raise blood glucose when unable to take oral sugar.

Hypoglycemia emergency: call EMS

Call emergency services if the patient is unconscious or not improving.

Dextrose 50% IV

Intravenous sugar used to treat severe hypoglycemia when IV access is available.

EMS

Emergency Medical Services for urgent medical response.

Three-month A1c measurement

A1c reflects average glucose over approximately 3 months.

Fasting glucose target <100 mg/dL

Normal fasting blood glucose is generally below 100 mg/dL.

A1c <5.6%

Normal A1c value according to notes; indicates good glycemic control.

Infections with diabetes

Diabetes increases susceptibility to infections.

Slow wound healing

Diabetes impairs healing due to poor perfusion and immune dysfunction.

Peripheral vascular issues

Circulatory problems in limbs associated with diabetes.

Gestational diabetes risk

Diabetes during pregnancy increases future risk of diabetes for mother and child.

Obesity and diet

Excess body weight and dietary patterns contribute to diabetes risk.

Portion sizes in different countries

Cultural differences in portions influence caloric intake and diabetes risk.

Exercise and diabetes

Physical activity improves insulin sensitivity and glucose control.

Medication adherence barriers

Factors that prevent consistent use of diabetes medications.

Steroid-induced diabetes

Hyperglycemia caused by corticosteroid therapy.

Organ transplant-induced diabetes

Diabetes that can occur after organ transplant due to steroids.

Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes

Diabetes occurring in CF due to pancreatic damage.

Genetic beta-cell defects

Inherited beta-cell dysfunction affecting insulin production.

Genetic insulin action defects

Inherited defects affecting insulin action.

Pancreatic disease

Pancreas disorders that can impair insulin production.

Metformin contraindications

Conditions where metformin should be avoided (e.g., significant renal/hepatic impairment, heart failure).

Kidney/hepatic impairment caution

Renal or hepatic disease increases metformin risk and requires caution.

Metformin renal function monitoring

Regular assessment of kidney function during metformin therapy.

GLP-1 receptor agonists

Drugs that mimic GLP-1 signaling to enhance insulin and reduce appetite.

Incretin effect on gastric emptying

Incretins slow gastric emptying, smoothing post-meal glucose rise.

70/30 insulin ratio

A premixed insulin formulation combining rapid-acting and intermediate-acting insulin.

Type 1 onset age

Typically younger individuals; autoimmune beta-cell destruction occurs early.

Type 2 onset age

Often develops in adults; linked to obesity and inactivity.

Three polys

Polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia—the classic diabetes symptoms.

A1c as measure of control

A1c reflects average glucose and helps assess long-term control.

Self-monitoring of blood glucose

Patients check their own blood glucose levels to guide treatment.

Nurse education role in diabetes

Educating patients about diet, exercise, and medication adherence.

Diet and exercise counseling

Lifestyle advice to improve glycemic control and reduce complications.

Diabetes discharge education

Teaching patients about insulin administration, monitoring, and when to seek care.

Tolbutamide

First-generation sulfonylurea used to increase insulin secretion.

Glipizide

Second-generation sulfonylurea that increases insulin secretion.

Glyburide

Second-generation sulfonylurea that increases insulin secretion.

Glimepiride

Third-generation sulfonylurea that increases insulin secretion.

Exenatide dosing: Twice daily

GLP-1 mimetic injected before meals to lower glucose.