AP Psych - Unit 1

nature-nurture issue (1.1)

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. 

natural selection (1.1)

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology (1.1)

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection 

behavior genetics (1.1)

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior 

mutation (1.1)

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

environment (1.1)

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

heredity (1.1)

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes (1.1)

the biochemical units of heredity

genome (1.1)

the complete instructions for making an organism

identical (monozygotic) twins (1.1)

individuals from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

franternal (dizygotic) twins (1.1)

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment 

interaction (1.1)

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics (1.1)

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

nervous system (1.2) 

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems 

central nervous system (CNS) (1.2) 

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS) (1.2)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves (1.2)

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory (afferent) neurons (1.2)

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord 

motor (efferent) neurons (1.2)

neurons that carry outgoing informations from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons (1.2)

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communication internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system (1.2)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. 

autonomic nervous system (ANS) (1.2)

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system (1.2)

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system (1.2)

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy 

reflex (1.2)

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex

neuron (1.3)

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body (1.3)

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center

dendrites (1.3)

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon (1.3)

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath (1.3)

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells (glia) (1.3)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential (1.3)

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold (1.3)

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse 

refractory period (1.3)

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response (1.3)

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse (1.3)

the junction between the axon top of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft 

neurotransmitters (1.3)

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether than neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake (1.3)

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins (1.3)

“morphine within”; natural opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure 

agonist (1.3)

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist (1.3)

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system (1.3)

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream 

hormones (1.3)

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drug (1.3)

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

substance use disorder (1.3)

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption 

depressants (1.3)

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

tolerance (1.3)

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect 

addiction (1.3)

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences

withdrawal (1.3)

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

barbiturates (1.3)

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement 

opioids (1.3)

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants (1.3)

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

hallucinogens (1.3)

psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input 

near-death experience (1.3)

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

biological psychology (1.4)

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, psychologists, or biopsychologists 

biopsychosocial approach (1.4)

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis (1.4)

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

neuroplasticity (1.4)

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

lesion (1.4)

tissue destruction. Brian lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)

EEG (electroencephalogram) (1.4)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes places on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography) (1.4)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity. 

CT (computed tomography) scan (1.4)

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET (position emission tomography) (1.4)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) (1.4)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI) (1.4)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

forebrain (1.4)

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activites

brainstem (1.4)

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions 

medulla (1.4)

hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus (1.4)

the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation (1.4)

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal 

cerebellum (1.4)

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system (1.4)

neural system located mostly in the forebrain - blow the cerebral hemispheres - that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala (1.4)

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion 

hypothalamus (1.4)

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus (1.4)

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage

cerebral cortex (1.4)

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center 

frontal lobes (1.4)

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher order thinking, and execitve functioning (such as making plans and judgments)

parietal lobes (1.4)

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes (1.4)

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes (1.4)

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing

motor cortex (1.4)

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements 

somatosensory cortex (1.4)

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas (1.4)

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

neurogenesis (1.4)

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum (1.4)

the large and of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain (1.4)

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them 

consciousness (1.5)

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience (1.5)

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating)

dual processing (1.5)

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on seperate conscious and unconscious tracks 

blindsight (1.5)

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing (1.5)

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

sequential processing (1.5)

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems 

sleep (1.5)

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

circadian rhythm (1.5)

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep (1.5)

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

alpha waves (1.5)

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep (1.5)

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

hallucinations (1.5)

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus 

hypnagogic sensations (1.5)

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

delta waves (1.5)

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep