Week 2 - Prosocial behavior and altruism

Prosocial behaviour

deliberate and voluntary actions intended to benefit others

Features:

• It is intentional and voluntary 

• It aims to benefit another person or group 

• It may still involve personal gain 

Prosocial behavior - Altruism

A particular subset of prosocial behaviour with no expectation of reward

Theoretical explanations for prosocial and altruistic behaviour - COGNITIVE / DECISION-MAKING MODEL (LATANÉ & DARLEY)

views helping as a rational, step-by-step decision process involving social cognition and evaluation of situations. 

COGNITIVE / DECISION-MAKING MODEL (LATANÉ & DARLEY) - Five Steps

1. Noticing the event 

• Must notice something has happened and action is required  

• Needs may be clear, or uncertain and open to interpretation 

2. Taking responsibility 

• The person decides whether it is their responsibility 

• Diffusion of responsibility occurs when others are present, reducing personal obligation 

3. Weighing the costs and benefits (Piliavin et al. 1981)  

• Perceived profits – reward minus loss  

• Costs – including consequences of NOT helping 

4. Deciding how to help 

• The individual assesses their competence and options 

• Direct help vs. indirect help (e.g. calling authorities) 

Failure to help can occur due to: 

• Not noticing the problem 

• Interpreting it as non-serious 

• Feeling it is someone else’s responsibility 

• High perceived costs 

• Lack of skills or knowledge 

COGNITIVE / DECISION-MAKING MODEL (LATANÉ & DARLEY) - Criticism

This model assumes a degree of rationality, which has been criticised in high-emotion emergency situations. 

Theoretical explanations for prosocial and altruistic behaviour - Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives

Evolutionary psychology asks how helping behaviour could have survival value. 

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives - Kin Selection

Helping relatives increases the likelihood of shared genes being passed on. People are more likely to help close kin, especially in life-or-death situations. 

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives - Reciprocal altruism

Helping others with the expectation that they will help you in the future. This promotes long-term cooperation.

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives - Mutualism

Helping that immediately benefits both parties.

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives - Criticism

they struggle to explain: 

• Costly helping of strangers 

• Helping with no possibility of future reciprocation 

Thus, biological explanations are considered necessary but insufficient. 

Theoretical explanations for prosocial and altruistic behaviour - The Bystander-Calculus Model (Piliavin et al., 1981) 

integrates physiological arousal and cognitive evaluation. 

The Bystander-Calculus Model (Piliavin et al., 1981) - Three phases of helping

Helping occurs through three phases: 

1. Physiological arousal (e.g. anxiety, discomfort when witnessing distress) 

2. Labelling the arousal (empathy, fear, personal distress) 

3. Cost-benefit analysis of helping vs. not helping 

The Bystander-Calculus Model (Piliavin et al., 1981) - What triggers helping in the bystander-calculus model?

Arousal + cost–benefit analysis favouring helping.

The Bystander-Calculus Model (Piliavin et al., 1981) - criticism

Limitations: 

• Underplays social norms and situational pressures 

• Oversimplifies emotional complexity 

• Less effective at explaining extreme or costly altruism 

Theoretical explanations for prosocial and altruistic behaviour - Learning Perspectives on Helping - reinforcement

Prosocial behaviour increases when it is rewarded. Importantly: 

• Rewards do not need to be material 

• Praise, approval, and positive emotions can reinforce helping 

• Reinforced helping can persist even after rewards stop 

Positive emotions themselves may act as internal reinforcers, encouraging future helping. 

Learning Perspectives on Helping - modelling

Learning prosocial behaviour by observing others, especially role models: 

• Parents and caregivers 

• Media characters (TV, videogames) 

• Authority figures 

Learning Perspectives on Helping - social norms

Helping behaviour is strongly shaped by cultural and moral norms

social norms - Social responsibility norm 

We should help those who are dependent or unable to help themselves 
This norm varies across cultures 

social norms - Reciprocity norm 

We should help those who have helped us 
Encourages stable social relationships 

social norms - Social justice norm

Focuses on fairness and equitable distribution of resources