History 4A Readings

Constitution of Athens

• Peisistratus was a tyrant who ruled Athens in the 6th century BCE, known for implementing reforms that helped the lower classes and promoting cultural developments in the city (redistribution, loans, public works)

• Cleisthenes: democratic reforms

• Aristotle argues that the tyrant actually was more effective and benevolent ruler

• Challenges Greeks who view tyranny as inherently negative, suggesting that Peisistratus’ populist policies benefited the people by improving socio-economic conditions and stabilizing the city.

Queen Hatshepsut

Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, known for her extensive building projects and trade expeditions, often depicted in male regalia to assert authority.

-unified Egypt

-legitimizes her rule using God; claims she was fathered by the God Amun which makes her divinely ordained. since he is the god of kingship this further reinforces that her authority is sanctioned by the most powerful deity.
-either shown as a female or male ruler, ceremonial beard and all; reinforces idea of genderless representation of authority
-ignored and erased in later reigns

Tale of Giglamesh

An ancient Mesopotamian epic poem that follows the adventures of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, who becomes best friends with Enki, a wild man created to challenge him and together they adventure to fight the Bull of Heaven and guardian of the Cedar Forest. When Enki dies, Giglamesh becomes engulfed in grief so he seeks out Utnapishtim, the man who was granted immortality for surviving the Great Flood sent by the god Enlil. During his quest for immortality, he is told that immortality is reserved only for the Gods and that humans cannot be immortal. While he is deeply stricken, Giglamesh learns he must make the most of his time on earth and leave behind an impactful legacy. This tale talks about theme topics such friendship, loss, and impermanence of the human condition, serving as a lesson to readers to make the most of what they have.

Odyssey

An ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, king of Ithaca, detailing the adventures of Odysseus as he struggles to return home after the Trojan War. He has to endure through the path of Poseidon as well as the goddess Circe, who turns his men into swine and tries to seduce him so that she can poison him. He is ultimately protected by Hermes, who warns him. When Odysseus resists the enchantments, she becomes highly impressed, so she becomes an ally, and they stay with her for a year. Homerian epics are sources of morality, but the lessons they teach can at times be very misogynistic. Circe’s characterization is a stock trope of the “evil seductress” who weaponizes her sexuality and she basically serves as a warning to men to not fall for lust because it can leave them in a vulnerable position where they can easily be taken advantage of.

Cyrus Cylinder

• Inscription from Babylon after it was conquered by Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE

• Made for the Gods and for future generations

• Propaganda text where Cyrus justified his rule using religion, saying he was chosen to rule by Babylonian Gods such as Marduk which meant his conquest was divinely sanctioned

• Portrayal of benevolence via cultural respect—Cyrus restored temples, repatriated displaced peoples and honored the local customs/traditions which made him more appealing

• His tolerance made the conquered more likely to accept him as leader and strengthened his authority

Perpetua’s Martyrdom

The account of Perpetua, a young Christian woman, who was martyred in the early 3rd century for her faith. It details her visions and steadfastness in the face of persecution, emphasizing themes of faith, sacrifice, and the strength of women in early Christianity. This underscores ascetism which is the act of renouncing everything you have in the world including your family and even your life for the sake of ridding your heart of desires and dedicating yourself to God. Ascetism is particularly important because it portrays a means of escape for those who subjugated, especially women. Prior, women are expected to married and dedicate their life to their husband and family—no debate. Now, ascetism finally gave them some autonomy and the choice to remain unmarried.

Pliny the Younger

Governor in Asia Minor who was unsure of how to prosecute those who were Christian. He followed standard protocol of interrogating them and trying to use punishment of death to scare them into renouncing their faith, but if they said they weren’t Christian and proved so by worshipping the Roman Gods and participating in the traditional Roman rituals/practices then they were let go. Pliny wrote to Emperor Trajan to ask for confirmation on what to do with those who were formerly Christian, if protocol is different for children, and how to address all the new anonymous accusations. Trajan responds and affirms everything he’s doing, stating that Christians should actively be hunted down and if someone renounces Christianity and proves it by worshipping the Roman Gods, they should be released. He says to ignore all the anonymous accusations. This underscores how the state doesn’t have the authority to decide who lives and dies, the Gods do. It also shows religious persecution was less about morality and more about cultural uniformity/homogeneity. Refusal to participate in Roman religion was politically dangerous because it bred dissent—Christianity and the idea of monotheism delegitimized the rule of Roman authorities.

Achievement of Augustus

• Deifies and glorifies Augustus as humble and benevolent ruler who serves the best interests of the people

• great foreign policy mediator, very diplomatic… not so focused on conquest

• refused excessive titles and ruled modestly

• generosity: money gifts, games, public buildings, and care for veterans

• distinction between a tyrant and a king: while both have absolute power, one rules in his own self interest while the other rules in the interest of the people