Ap physc unit 1

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines how human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

Natural Selection

Traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently

Nature

Genetic influences on traits and behaviors

Nurture

Environmental influences on traits and behaviors

Twin Studies

Compare identical and fraternal twins to study genetic vs

environmental influence

Adoption Studies

Compare adopted children to biological and adoptive parents

Family Studies

Examine behavioral traits across generations

Heredity

Transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

Likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders based on genetics

Eugenics

Unethical movement to “improve” genetics via selective breeding

Cerebral Cortex

Outer brain layer; involved in thinking and complex processes

Frontal Lobes

Responsible for decision-making, planning, and problem-solving

Prefrontal Cortex

Controls personality expression and complex planning

Executive Functioning

Planning, organizing, and regulating behavior

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movements

Parietal Lobes

Process sensory information and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes sensory input from the body

Occipital Lobes

Vision center of the brain

Temporal Lobes

Involved in hearing, memory, and understanding language

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

Brainstem

Controls basic life functions like breathing and heartbeat

Medulla

Part of brainstem, Regulates vital life functions such as heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Activating System

Regulates wakefulness, alertness, attention, and consiousness

Cerebellum

Controls balance, posture, and coordination

Limbic System

Involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

Reward Center

Brain area that regulates pleasure and motivation

Thalamus

Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, and temperature

Pituitary Gland

“Master gland” controlling hormones and other glands

Hippocampus

Responsible for learning and memory formation

Amygdala

Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression

Nervous System

The body’s communication network of nerve cells

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the body

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary body movements

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information

Glial Cells

Support and protect neurons

Motor Neurons

Carry signals from the spinal cord to muscles

Sensory Neurons

Carry sensory information to the CNS

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons

Reflex Arc

Simple pathway controlling reflex actions

Action Potential

Brief electrical signal that travels down an axon

Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neurons either fire completely or not at all

Depolarization

Reduction in electrical charge difference across the neuron membrane

Refractory Period

Period when a neuron cannot fire again

Resting Potential

State of neuron when not firing an impulse

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron

Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment

Circadian Rhythm

The body’s 24-hour biological clock

Jet Lag

Disruption of circadian rhythm due to travel

Shift Work

Working irregular hours that affect sleep cycles

NREM Stage 1

Light sleep; may include falling sensations

NREM Stage 2

Deeper sleep; heart rate slows and temperature drops

NREM Stage 3

Deepest, most restorative stage of sleep

REM Sleep

Dreaming stage with rapid eye movement and active brain

REM Rebound

Increased REM sleep after being deprived

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random activity

Consolidation Theory

Dreams help solidify memories and learning

Memory Consolidation

Process of converting short-term to long-term memories

Restoration Theory

Sleep restores physical and mental energy

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter perception, mood, or consciousness

Agonists

Drugs that enhance neurotransmitter action

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitter action

Reuptake Inhibitors

Prevent neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed

Stimulants

Increase brain activity (ex. caffeine, cocaine)

Depressants

Slow brain activity (ex. alcohol)

Hallucinogens

Cause perceptual distortions (ex. marijuana)

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs (ex. heroin)

Tolerance

Needing more of a drug for the same effect

Addiction

Compulsive use of a substance despite harm

Withdrawal

Symptoms after stopping an addictive drug

Sensation

Detecting physical energy from the environment

Transduction

Converting energy into neural signals

Perception

Interpreting sensory information

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus needed to detect a signal 50% of the time

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

Smallest detectable difference between stimuli

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity due to constant exposure

Weber’s Law

Two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion

Synesthesia

Condition where one sense triggers another (ex. seeing sounds)

Retina

Light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye

Blind Spot

Area with no receptors where the optic nerve exits the eye

Lens

Focuses light on the retina

Accommodation

Lens changes shape to focus light

Nearsightedness

Near objects are clearer than far ones

Farsightedness

Far objects are clearer than near ones

Photoreceptors

Light-detecting cells in the retina

Rods

Detect black, white, and gray; used in low light

Cones

Detect color and detail; work in bright light

Trichromatic Theory

Three types of color receptors: red, green, and blue

Opponent-Process Theory

Opposing color pairs enable color vision

Afterimages

Visual images that remain after the stimulus is gone

Fovea

Central focus point of the retina with many cones

Ganglion Cells

Transmit visual information from retina to brain

Wavelength

Distance between peaks of a wave; determines color or pitch

Amplitude

Height of a wave; determines loudness or brightness