Language and the Self Keywords

Suitable for CIE A Level English Language. Covers keywords in Section B: Language and the Self for Paper 4

behaviourism

a theory of learning behaviour in humans and animals, often through conditioning

innatism

a philosophical idea that man is born with ideas, knowledge, and beliefs; platonic innatism and Cartesian innatism are the two main forms; contradicts empiricism

nativism

the political policy of promoting and protecting the native and indigenous inhabitants over the immigrants

empiricism

the philosophical theory that knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses; contradicts innatism

what is linguistic relativity?

the idea that people’s perceptions of the world are relative to their spoken language

linguistic determinism

the theory that differences in languages and their structures determine how people think and interact with the world around them, making language a limiting factor

who developed the linguistic relativity and determinism theory?

Benjamin Whorf and Edward Sapir, 1920s; combined they are known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and/or Whorfianism

universalism

the view that all language is based on the same underlying universal structure or laws

what is the language of thought hypothesis (LOTH)?

the view that thinking occurs in a mental language (often called Mentalese)

who developed the language of thought hypothesis?

Jerry Fodor, 1975

speech communities

a group of people sharing a common language

prestige

the degree of esteem attached by members of a speech community to certain languages, dialects, or features of a language variety

idiolect

the speech habit of an individual; the words and phrases they choose; include accent and dialect

sociolect

denotes to socioeconomic status, the dialect of a particular class or group

dialect

a particular form of language in its vocabulary and grammar which is peculiar to a specific region

genderlect

a variety of speech used by a particular gender

linguistic variation

there is more than one way of saying the same thing i.e pronunciation, word choice, or morphology and syntax

standard language

the main form of a language, can be thought of as formal speaking or writing

non-standard language

the form of a language that is dependent on the area where it is spoken, can be thought of as informal speaking or writing (including slang)

inclusion

acknowledges diversity, includes people in a conversation using inclusive pronouns, allows people to connect despite having differing mother tongues

exclusion

may not address certain groups, was used to separate the aristocracy from the peasants (namely England in 1066)

speech sounds

the sounds used in words

speech accents

the way in which words are pronounced; an identifiable style of pronounciation, often related to a region or socioeconomic status

accomodation

how people adjust their style of speech to be like others around them

adjacency pairs

parallel expressions used across the boundaries of individual speaking turns; usually ritualistic and formulaic socially

back-channel features

words, phrases, and non-verbal utterances used by a listener to give feedback to a speaker that the message is being followed and understood

elaborated code

language that is more complete and complex in lexis and syntax; used in more formal and less personal relationships

restricted code

language which assumes a shared understanding amongst speakers, leading to limited lexis and syntax construction

who made the elaborated and restricted codes?

Basil Bernstein (1971)

cliche

may be an indication of the fact that a speaker has little or nothing to say, or that they are playing for time or that they are just going through the social motions and care little for the purpose of this conversation

code switch

switching between different varieties and registers of language

computer-mediated communication

communication by means of electronic devices

computer-mediated discourse

the specialised form of language between online users

convergence

when we make our language more similar to those around us

conversational face

each speaker’s sense of their own linguistic image and worth

who created the concept of conversational face?

Erving Goffman

conversational floor

speaking until you’ve finished or until someone interrupts you

cooperative principle

the assumption that speakers usually mean what they say and that hearers accept this when trying to work out the meaning

who created the cooperative principle?

Paul Grice (cooperative principle)

courtesy terms

‘please‘, ‘thank you‘

divergence

when we make our language more distinctly different from those around us

face-threatening acts

acts or words which seem to threaten the self-esteem of a speaker in a conversation

fillers

items which do not carry conventional meaning but which are inserted in speech to allow time to think or to hold a turn in conversation

maxim of quantity

don’t say too much or too little

maxim of relevance

keep to the point

maxim of manner

speak in a clear, coherent, and orderly way

maxim of quality

be truthful

who created the four conversational maxims?

Paul Grice (maxims)

hedge terms

words and phrases which soften or weaken the force with which something is said

in-slang / in-jokes

slang/jokes that only make sense among those of the same speech community

interactional talk

language in conversation used for interpersonal reasons and/or socialising

jargon

the language peculiar to a particular trade, profession, or group

languaculture

the relationship between language and culture; language that includes elements of grammar, vocabulary, and also past knowledge, local and cultural information, habits, and behaviours

linguistic reflectionism

the idea that language reflects the thoughts and ideas of a culture

negative politeness

strategies intended to avoid giving offense and imposing on others by showing respect

phatic talk

the conversational utterances that have no concrete purpose other than to establish or maintain personal relationships

political correctness

avoiding offense to any group who may be seen as disadvantaged because of their race, gender, disability, or any social disadvantage

positive politeness

strategies that make the participant feel good about themselves

rapport

relationship, usually a harmonious one, established between a speaker and their audience

register

level of formality in speech with others

intimate

language used in private / between very close friends / families / couples

casual

language used between friends

consultative

language which is used when casual is too informal/formal is too formal

formal

language used when there is no personal relationship between the speaker and the hearer

frozen

language used is fixed for that specific context e.g ANZAC Day speeches

who created the continuum of the five levels of politeness?

Martin Joos (1968)

repertoire

the idea that we are all ‘performers‘ of many different types of speech, according to context

self

an individual’s separate existence from other people

self-identity

an individual’s awareness of their own unique characteristics in relation to social groups around them

supportive minimal vocalisation

where a second speaker utters minimal responses like *mmm* or *yeah*, often the function of the utterances is to support rather than challenge

topic shifts

the point at which speakers move from one topic to another

transactional talk

language to get things done or to transmit content or information

vocative terms

names, nicknames, titles, terms of addresses used to create a personal relationship between speakers and encourage interaction