AP PSYCH UNIT - 5 COGNITION (1)

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness, information that is stored in memory.

Parallel processing

The ability of the brain to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously.

Sensory memory

The initial stage of memory that holds sensory information for a very brief period.

Working memory

A limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. --> episodic & semantic -----> Semantic: Stores general knowledge and facts about the world that are not tied to a specific time or place. Examples:Knowing that Paris is the capital of France. ------> Episodic: Stores personal experiences and events that are tied to specific times and places. Examples:Remembering your first day of school.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.--> flashcards you consciously try to put it into long term memory

Automatic processing

Encoding that occurs without conscious effort

Implicit memory

A type of memory that works automatically, without you thinking about it to remember--> procedural & conditioned memory

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a fraction of a second.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a few seconds.

Chunking

The process of organizing information into manageable units or chunks.----> counteract the serial position effect!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Mnemonics

Memory aids, memory techniques that use vivid imagery or acronym to help with processing information

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out.

Testing effect

The enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Shallow processing

Encoding based on the structure or appearance of words (basic level)

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words.

Flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Long term potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus may influence a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. --> examples of the book

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories following an event.

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. ----> Old information interferes with the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. ---> new information interferes with the recall of old information

Repression

The basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. ---> the inability to recall the context of how or where information was learned, while still retaining the information itself.

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category. ex: you think of a golden retriever once you think of dogs

Convergent thinking

The ability to try to find a solution to a problem one way and by applying established rules --> The ability to give the correct answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

A simple thinking rule that is quicker than algorithm but not always correct --> Sterotypes that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently --> something tha

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent (stereotype) (ex: assuming that a women knows how to cook)

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Belief perseverance

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Framing

How an issue is worded or presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit in language

Morpheme

The smallest unit that carries meaning in a language.

Babbling stage

The stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

Telegraphic speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area.

Ernst Weber

A German physician known for his work in sensory perception and the concept of just noticeable difference.

Ernest Hilgard

A psychologist known for his research on hypnosis and the concept of the hidden observer.

Edward Thorndike

An American psychologist known for his work on the law of effect and animal learning.

Albert Bandura

A psychologist known for his social learning theory and the concept of observational learning.

Elizabeth Loftus

A cognitive psychologist known for her research on the malleability of human memory.

Wolfgang Kohler

A psychologist known for his work on insight learning and problem-solving in apes.

Noam Chomsky

A linguist known for his theory of universal grammar and contributions to the field of cognitive psychology.