Studied by 19 peoplehow to find the number of stereoisomers?
look for chiral centers, which are only carbons that are attached to four different substituents. nitrogen does not count as a chiral center on the MCAT. look for wedges and dashes (easy indicator for chiral centers) and finally use the formula 2^n
what sugars undergo mutarotation?
only reducing sugars (hemiacetals)! examples: maltose, lactose NOT sucrose
what is the relationship between pH and pKa?
pKa < pH = deprotonated
pKa > pH = protonated
pKa = pH = ½ protonated ½ deprotonated
what are the pKa values for the N-terminus, C-terminus and the amino acids?
mnemonic: don’t express hate, create your kindness right
D (aspartate) = 4
E (glutamate) = 4
H (histidine) = 6
C (cysteine) = 8
Y (tyrosine) = 10
K (lysine) = 11
R (arginine) = 12
N-terminus = 10
C-terminus = 2
what is the relationship between Kd and binding affinity?
higher Km = lower binding affinity
lower Km = higher binding affinity
salt bridges
anionic binds cationic and vice versa
polarity
non-polar (hydrophobic) binds only non-polar
polar (hydrophilic) binds only polar
what is the relationship between temperature and resistance?
temperature and resistance are linearly proportional.
as temperature increases, resistance increases and vice versa
how can myopia (nearsightedness) be corrected?
use a diverging lens
how can hyperopia (farsightedness) be corrected?
use a converging lens
what makes a good buffer?
pKa within ± pH
for example, for a pH of 5.3, the pKa would be best in the pH range of 4.3 - 6.3
how to tell if the wave is transverse or longitudinal?
if you can see the crests and troughs, it is a transverse wave (perpendicular to the wave propagation)
if you cannot see the crests or troughs, and instead see areas of high and low density then it is a longitudinal wave (parallel to the wave propagation)
where are real images formed?
in front of the mirror
where are virtual images formed?
behind the mirror
what is the relationship between refraction and wavelength?
longer wavelengths refract less
shorter wavelengths refract more
what is Hooke’s law?
F(elastic) = -kx
in the presence of a magnetic field, where do protons and electrons travel?
in opposite directions
what is the right hand rule?
used for Lorentz force
force is always perpendicular to both the magnetic field and velocity of the charge (lay out right palm facing up, the fingers are magnetic field and thumb is velocity)
thumb for current and curled fingers for magnetic field
how does the speed and intensity of sound change when moving between phases?
going from gas to liquid to solid, the intensity would decrease and the velocity would increase
equation for radius and focal length?
focal length = r/2
what is spherical aberration?
lenses with perfectly rounded surfaces focus light at multiple focal points
what is a good leaving group?
halides make good leaving groups, water is a good one too (better than hydroxyls) but halides are preferred first over anything
what is more electrophilic: halides or amides?
halides
what are lactams?
cyclic amides
what is formed in a retro-aldol reaction?
the carbon-carbon bond between the alpha and beta carbons atoms is broken to form two aldehydes, two ketones, or 1 aldehyde and 1 ketone.
this reaction is catalyzed by a base and heat
what is the inductive effect?
it is a property where electrons are donated through sigma bonds
ER to golgi
anterograde transport
golgi to ER
retrograde transport
how many electrons are transferred in cytochrome c?
1 electron
ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (3+)
which primers does PCR work best with?
primers with high GC content
does substrate concentration or enzymes affect Km?
NO!
Km is a constant, it will only affect Vmax
which type of isomers are favoured for amino acids and carbohydrates?
amino acids = L isomers
carbohydrates = D isomers
which metabolic pathways do not require oxygen (anaerobic)?
if it occurs in the cytoplasm, it does not require oxygen (anaerobic)
glycolysis
fermentation (lactic acid)
glycogenesis
glycogenolysis
pentose phosphate pathway
fatty acid synthesis
gluconeogenesis?
which metabolic pathways require oxygen (aerobic)?
if it occurs in the mitochondria, it requires oxygen (aerobic)
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
citric acid cycle
fatty acid oxidation
electron transport chain
what is a fatty acid made up of?
a hydrocarbon tail and a carboxyl head
what enzyme is used to cleave polypeptides?
protease
what is alternative splicing?
the production of multiple protein products by producing distinct mRNA molecules from the same gene
removal of introns before leaving the nucleus (introns stay in the nucleus)
what is gene duplication?
the production of distinct genes with similar sequences
how many origins of replications are in eukaryotes? prokaryotes?
eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication
prokaryotes have only one origin of replication
what is DNA polymerase used in?
DNA polymerase is used in replication
what is RNA polymerase used in?
RNA polymerase is used in transcription
what does the recency effect support? primacy effect?
recency = short term memory
primacy = long term memory
what is meritocracy?
social mobility based on efforts and deeds
what is intergenerational mobility?
changes in social status between different generations within the same family
what is social reproduction?
the next generation has a similar social status as the previous generation
rich dad → rich son
poor dad → poor son
what is social stratification?
focuses on class-based hierarchy, NOT DEMOGRAPHIC (individual-level)
what is confirmation bias?
favoring information that aligns with own beliefs
what is conflict theory?
this theory looks at how sections of society are always antagonistic due to social and economic disparities, which causes conflict and leads to societal change
what is the “me” in Mead’s theory of identity?
the part of the personality that is taken from interactions from the environment
what is the “I” in Mead’s theory of identity?
the aspect of personality that responds to me
it is creative and autonomous
it decides how to react and the behaviors in doing so
what does interval mean? ratio?
interval means based of time that has elapsed between reinforcements
ratio means number of responses between reinforcements
what factors are taken into account for the development of a disorder?
both genetic AND environmental factors
what is the function of the left brain? right brain?
left brain = logic, language, math (stuff that helps your GPA)
right brain = spatial processing and creative stuff
what is prejudice? discrimination?
prejudice = negative attitude
discrimination = negative behavior
what is social capital?
the social mobility and advantage by the social networks and communication a person has
example: I have a CEO friend, can be advantageous in certain situations such as getting a higher pay job in their company
what is cultural capital?
the social mobility and advantage given by education, intellect, dress, and language
what is social constructionism?
it posits that nothing has inherent value, society gives value to things and this collective value causes that item to mean something
example: money is just paper, society decided to put value on it and make it worth something
how to tell if a synapse is electrical?
electrical synapses are joined by gap junctions (usually 2 nm to 4 nm apart) and there is relatively no time delay between signals and action potentials between the pre- and postsynaptic neurons.
how to tell if a synapse is chemical?
chemical synapses are separated by a synaptic cleft (usually 20 nm to 40 nm apart) and the signals are modified from electrical to chemical and back to electrical. As a result, the time delay is relatively long (about 0.5 msec)
what functional group is formed when an aldehyde or ketone reacts with a PRIMARY AMINE?
an imine is formed
C double bonded to N
what functional group is formed when an aldehyde or ketone reacts with a SECONDARY AMINE?
an enamine is formed
C double bonded to C
what does a cyanohydrin functional group look like?
a hydroxyl group and a cyano group attached to the same carbon
how are cyanohydrins formed?
nucleophilic addition of cyanide anion to the carbonyl of an aldehyde or ketone
how to tell if a proton has a higher chemical shift or lower chemical shift?
if a proton is closer to an electronegative atom such as chlorine, it has a higher chemical shift
if a proton is more substituted, it has a higher chemical shift
what types of pressures are used for simple and vacuum distillations?
atmospheric pressure is used for simple distillation and reduced pressure is used for vacuum distillation.
Hence, relative to the same compound under atmospheric pressure, the boiling point under reduced pressure will decrease.
what is a stereospecific reaction?
A stereospecific reaction is one that results in only one stereoisomer. This usually occurs in an SN2 reaction
what does it mean to dilute a solution?
dilution means to decrease concentration by adding more solvent
what is ionization in terms of solutions?
ionization = break apart and give a hydrogen.
For example, adding HCl to a chemical equation would would “add” hydrogen to the product side because HCl dissociates quickly (strong acid). This would then shift the reaction to the left due to Le Chatelier’s principle
relationship between intensity, power, and area?
intensity = power/area
what type of bonding is disulfide bridges?
intermolecular covalent bonding
what leads to a slower blood flow?
high resistance, large cross-sectional area, low pressure, longer length
standard volume and temp for ideal gas
at 0 degrees celsius, volume is 22.4 L
at 25 degrees celsius, volume is 24.4 L
what are the bond of glycogen?
backbone has alpha 1-4 bonds and the branching is alpha 1-6
galvanic (voltaic) cell
free energy = -
E = +
anode = -
cathode = +
electrolytic cell
free energy = +
E = -
anode = +
cathode = -
what is used to calculate the solubility constant Ksp?
only products!
what is a buffer?
an aqueous solution containing a conjugate acid-base pair
what is a buffering capacity?
the amount of acid or base that can be absorbed without a significant change in pH
what do transcription factors bind to?
they regulate expression of other genes by binding to DNA
can enzymes alter the rate of a chemical reaction by altering pH?
YES! example: carbonic anhydrase
can enzymes alter the rate of a chemical reaction by altering the substrate’s primary structure?
NO!
although something like protease can cleave the peptide bond in a primary structure, it requires water to do so. It isn’t the enzyme itself that alters the structure.
where is the site of post-translational processing?
golgi
what is the function of the endomembrane system?
in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted. for example, insulin
what organelles are part of the endomembrane system?
the nuclear membrane, ER, golgi, lysosome, vesicles, endosomes, etc.
what is habituation?
a decrease in response to a repeated stimulus
what is dishabituation?
when you become more responsive to the stimulus again
what is an objective measure? subjective measure?
an objective measure is one that is part of a study (usually stated in the passage)
a subjective measure is one that is inferred or based on interpretation (not stated in the passage)
what is in the middle of the cochlea?
a membrane called the organ of Corti
has a basilar membrane and a tectorial membrane
what types of frequencies are found at the apex and base of the uncoiled cochlea?
apex - low frequencies
base - high frequencies
how can the brain distinguish between different frequencies?
tonotopical mapping
what is proprioception? kinaesthesia?
proprioception - balance/position (awareness of the body in space)
kinaesthesia - movement of the body (behavioural)
where are taste buds located?
they can be found anywhere on the tongue - fungiform (anterior) , circumvallate (back), and foliate (side)
they are mostly found on the anterior aspect of the tongue though!
which tastes rely on GPCR receptors? which tastes rely on ion channels?
GPRC receptors - sweet, bitter, and umami
ion channels - sour and salty
an INCREASE in PRESSURE shifts the equilibrium to which side of the reaction?
the side with fewer moles!
a DECREASE in PRESSURE shifts the equilibrium to which side of the reaction?
the side with more moles!
an INCREASE in VOLUME (constant T) will shift equilibrium to which side of the reaction?
the side with more moles
a DECREASE in VOLUME (constant T) will shift equilibrium to which side of the reaction?
the side with fewer moles
what does the 120/80 reading mean
120 - systolic (max pressure)
80 - diastolic (min pressure)
relationship between bond strength and bond length
it is proportional!
long bond = weak bond
short bond = strong bond
what does the STP rule state?
1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 L
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