AP Psychology Unit 3: Development & Learning

How does development shape our identity and behavior over the lifespan, considering the influence of biological, cognitive, and environmental factors, and how do key developmental theories inform our understanding of these processes? From infancy to adulthood, this unit will explore how individuals undergo profound growth and transformation, navigation the intricate interplay of nature and nurture.

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span from infancy to late adulthood

Nature & Nurture

debate over how our genetics and experiences shape our development and who we are

Continuity & Stages

explores which parts of development are gradual & continuous vs. abrupt

Stability & Change

explores which traits persists throughout life

Longitudinal Research

research that follows & retests people over time to help identify long-term trends & effects of early experiences on later stages

Cross-Sectional Research

research that compares people of different ages to infer developmental changes

Psychosocial Development

the lifelong process of emotional growth and social skills (Erik Erikson’s Stages)

Trust vs. Mistrust

Babies depend on caregivers for basic needs. Baby learns to rely on others when caregivers respond promptly, while negligence may cause an infant to feel insecure

Autonomy and Shame & Doubt Stage

Toddlers begin exploring the world around them and learn their place within it. Children feel secure to take risks when caregivers encourage independence, otherwise children might doubt themselves if discouraged.

Initiative & Guilt Stage

Preschoolers are increasingly doing things themselves and establishing their own goals. Child learns how to make decisions and plan for the future, while criticism can lead to guilt for being too assertive in their desires.

Industry & Inferiority

As children grow independent, they become self aware and begin to compare themselves to others. Children can develop confidence and pride who are accomplished compared to their peers, while children who do not achieve certain milestones may doubt themselves

Identity & Role Confusion Stage

Adolescents try to figure out who they are. They might establish their identity, while a weak sense of self may lead to struggles of breaking away from their peers or family’s expectations.

Intimacy & Isolation Stage

People get married or develop significant relationships. If not, they may feel isolated or lonely.

Generativity & Stagnation Stage

Adult are at the height of their careers and are focused on contributing to society and the next generation. They might offer guidance through parenting or mentorship, otherwise they may feel restless and purposeless.

Integrity & Despair Stage

Adults reflect on the life they’ve lived. They might feel fulfilled which allows them to accept aging and death more gracefully, otherwise they might feel disappointed.

Prenatal Development

The process of the growth and development within the womb starting from conception and continuing until birth

Teratogens

agents (such as chemicals, viruses, drugs) that can reach the embryo or fetus during pregnancy and cause harm (abnormalities, birth defects, behavioral problems)

Reflexes

Automatic, instinctive responses that newborns are born with to aid their survival

Rooting Reflex

Automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek helping them locate and latch onto mothers breast for feeding

Maturation

the genetically determined, biological process of growth & development that is primarily driven by genetics, not experience

Developmental Milestones

Key skills or behaviors that most children achieve by specific ages such as walking, talking, and problem solving， marking significant progress in physical, cognitive and social development

Sensitive Period

a time frame when an individual is especially receptive to environmental stimuli, making it an optimal time for learning certain skills or abilities (neuroplasticity)

Fine Motor Coordination

The ability to control small muscle movements (ex: writing, using utensils)

Gross Motor Coordination

The ability to control large muscle movements (ex: walking, jumping, throwing with balance and strength

Visual Cliff

An experimental setup used to study depth perception in infants, featuring a clear glass surface that causes the illusion of a drop off to test whether the infant can perceive depth

Puberty

the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood marked by rapid physical growth, hormonal shifts, cognitive & emotional development

Adolescent Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight that typically occurs during puberty, driven by hormonal changes and marking the transition from childhood to adulthood

Menopause

the natural end of menstruation, marking the end of a woman’s reproductive years

Sex

The biological influences characteristics that people define make, female and intersex

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures that make reproduction possible (ex: ovaries)

Secondary Sex Characteristics

No reproductive traits (ex: hips, voice, body hair)

Gender

The attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that Giovanni culture associates with a person’s biological sex

Gender Identity

Our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or combo, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth

Gender Typing

Taking on a traditional male or female role

Ecological Systems Theory

A theory of the social environment’s influence on human development

Authoritarian Parenting Style

parents are coercive and set strict rules

Permissive Parenting Style

Parents are more lenient—make a few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment → children can grow up to be more aggressive and immature

Authoritative Parenting Style

Parents are confrontative—both demanding and responsible—exert control by setting rules, but encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

Temperament

A person’s innate emotional and behavioral response (intense reactions or managing reactions) [ex: baby crying intensely and difficult to soothe = difficult ___]

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life (ex: ducklings follow mother)

Contact Comfort

The innate comfort that babies feel when they are physically touched by caregiver → forms bond and emotional attachment

Separation Anxiety

A distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior that children form as a result with their relationship with their caregivers

Secure Attachment

Infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when caregiver leaves and find comfort in caregiver’s return

Avoidant Attachment

An insecure attachment where individuals are uncomfortable with emotional closeness, valuing independence

Cause: inconsistent, rejecting caregiving in childhood

Effect: suppress emotions

Anxious Attachment

An insecure attachment where people crave intimacy, but fear abandonment leading to clinginess, neediness, and a constant need for reassurance.

Cause: caregivers were inconsistent → creates deep insecurity about their worth

Effect: constantly seek validation, clingy behavior

Disorganized Attachment

A pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors toward a caregiver, often resulting from trauma or abuse

Cause: trauma, abuse, depression, or unresolved loss

Effect: contradictory responses; seeking closeness, yet displaying fear

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic events or conditions (such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction) that occur before age 18 and can have long-term impacts on health and well-being

Social Clock

Cultural timeline that sets expected ages for key life events (ex: moving out, starting a career, getting married, having kids, retirement)

Emerging Adulthood

Transitional life stage from late teens to mid-20s, marked by exploration and self discovery as individuals navigate career paths, relationships, and personal identity

Adolescent Egocentrism

Stage in teen development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one’s experiences are unique and that others are always observing them (ex: being self-conscious of what you wear)

Imaginary Audience

Phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, making them highly self-conscious

Personal Fable

Adolescent belief that one’s experiences are unique and special, often leading to feelings of invulnerability and an underestimation of potential risks

Possible Selves

The various versions of who individuals might become in the future, including ideal selves they hope to achieve and feared selves they wish to avoid.

Social Identity

An individual’s sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups like nationality, religion, or profession

Identity Diffusion

A state where individuals have. It yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self.

Identity Foreclosure

Stage where individuals commit to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society.

Identity Moratorium

A stage in which individuals actively explore different life paths, but not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation

Identity Achievement

The stage where individuals have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self.

Jean Piaget

Psychologists won for his theory of cognitive development. Studied children’s developing cognition—all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Schemas

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences and information and adding it into existing schemas

Accommodation

Adjusting preexisting schemas to fit new information that conflicts with what you believe

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (birth to ~2 years old) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (seen, heard, or touched)

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage from (~2 to 6-7 years old) at which a child learns to use language, but does not yet comprehend mental operations of concrete logic (no logic); can’t reason, symbolic reasoning and imagination

Pretend Play

Involves children acting out scenarios, roles, or situations using their imagination, developing creativity, social skills and symbolic thinking

Parallel Play

Stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without directly interacting

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects are alive and have feelings

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, children have difficulty seeing from another person’s perspective

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have their own distinct mental states—beliefs, desires, intentions,

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s 3rd stage of cognitive development (ages 7-11) where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and conservation

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects such as volume or mass, remain consistent despite changes in form or appearance, typically developing in Piaget’s “Concrete and Operational Stage”

Reversibility

The ability to mentally reverse an action or operation, understanding that objects can be returned to their original state, typically developed during Piaget’s “Concrete and Operational Stage”

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (~age 12) where people begin thinking logically about abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky

Psychologist who developed a theory about how our social interactions influence our cognitive development

Scaffolding

In Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Zone of Proximal Development

The range b/t what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve w/ guidance

Crystallized Intelligence

The knowledge and skills you accumulate over time through education and experience, improving w/ age and useful problem-solving based on facts and prior learning

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to reason, solve novel problems and think abstractly w/o relying on prior knowledge (peaks in early adulthood and gradually declines)

Dementia

Decline in cognitive functioning that interferes w/ daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired judgement and difficulties in communication and reasoning (often seen in older adults)

Critical Period

Learning a 1st or 2nd language is easiest during childhood and significantly decreases after childhood

Phonemes

The smallest individual sounds in any language

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language

Semantics

Aspect of language that provides both the meaning of words and how words combine to form meaning

Syntax

Aspect of grammar that refers to the rules used to put the words in the correct order in a sentence

Cooing

Soft vowel-like sounds produced by babies when they appear to be happy and content

Babbling Stage

Consonant-like sounds and begins around 6 months

One-Word Stage

Children communicate using single words that often convey complex ideas (~10-18 months)

Two-Word Stage

Toddlers begin to combine 2 words to form simple sentences with the focus on essential words (~18-24 months)

Overgeneralization

A characteristic error when learning a language in which individuals apply grammatical rules too broadly

Nonverbal Manual Gestures

Hand/arm movements used to communicate without words, conveying emotions, intentions, or directions often w/ speech

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment

Associative Learning

A process of learning in which an individual forms connections b/t events that occur together

Habituation

Occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus

Classical Conditioning

A learning method where we associate 2 stimuli, enabling to anticipate events

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response w/o any learning needed (ex: food)

Unconditioned Response (UCS)

A natural and automatic reaction to a stimulus that occurs when/o any prior learning or conditioning

(ex: salivating when seeing food)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that after being repeatedly paired w/ unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response (ex: Restart sound)

Conditioned Response

A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented resulting from the association w/ unconditioned stimulus

(ex: dog salivates at hearing sound of whistle)