Child Development Key Words (Midterm One)

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from the lecture on the science of development.

Science of human development

Seeks to understand how and why people — all kinds of people, everywhere, of every age — change over time.

Scientific method

A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.

Hypothesis

A specific prediction that can be tested.

Meta-analysis

A research method that combines the results of many studies to reach a general conclusion.

Replication

Repetition of a study using different participants to verify findings.

Nature

The genetic influences on a person.

Nurture

The non-genetic influences on each developing person (e.g., environment, culture, nutrition).

Differential susceptibility

The idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences — often for genetic reasons.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Harmful childhood experiences that can lead to physical and emotional problems in adulthood.

Life-span perspective

An approach that considers all phases of life — not just childhood or adulthood.

Critical period

A specific time when a particular development must occur for normal growth.

Sensitive period

A time when certain types of development are most likely, though not exclusively, to occur.

Ecological-systems approach (Bronfenbrenner)

The view that each person is affected by many social contexts and interactions within nested systems.

Cohort

A group of people born around the same time who experience the same historical events together.

Culture

A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and guide behavior.

Social construction

An idea based on shared perceptions rather than objective reality (e.g., “childhood,” “senior citizen”).

Difference-equals-deficit error

The mistaken belief that a deviation from the norm means inferiority.

Ethnic group

People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share language, culture, and religion.

Race

A group of people regarded as distinct based on physical appearance, typically skin color.

Intersectionality

The idea that identities (e.g., race, gender, class) interact and can increase or decrease discrimination or privilege.

Silo

An isolated field or group that limits cross-disciplinary understanding.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A person’s position in society based on income, education, occupation, and residence.

Plasticity

The idea that people can change over time and that new behavior depends partly on past experiences.

Dynamic-systems approach

The view that human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the individual and all systems.

Survey

A research method that collects information from many people via interviews or questionnaires.

Scientific observation

A method of testing a hypothesis by watching and recording behavior systematically and objectively.

Experiment

A research method that determines cause-and-effect by manipulating an independent variable.

Independent variable

The variable that is introduced or manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable that may change as a result of exposure to the independent variable.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment or condition (independent variable).

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

Cross-sectional research

Compares groups of people of different ages at one time.

Longitudinal research

Collects data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age.

Cross-sequential research

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods; studies multiple age groups over time.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables where one is more or less likely to occur when the other does — correlation is not causation.

Quantitative research

Research that provides numerical data (ranks, scales); easily summarized and compared.

Qualitative research

Research that focuses on descriptions and experiences rather than numbers; uses open-ended questions.

Developmental theory

Group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations about human growth; framework for explaining patterns and problems of development.

Psychodynamic theory

Places origins of adult personality and values in earlier experiences, often unconscious, often in childhood (Freud).

Psychosocial theory

Erikson’s theory: Eight developmental stages, each with a challenging developmental crisis; emphasizes family and culture, not sexual urges.

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behavior and describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

Conditioning

Repeated experiences teach behavior; includes classical (association between meaningful and neutral stimuli) and operant (behavior followed by reinforcement or punishment) conditioning.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a consequence that increases the probability a behavior will occur again.

Social learning theory

Extension of behaviorism emphasizing the influence of other people; learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Cognitive theory

Emphasizes how thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions; studies changes in thinking over time (Piaget).

Information-processing theory

Compares human thinking to computer analysis of data: input, connections, stored memories, and output; looks at biochemical and neurological origins of thought.

American question

How to accelerate cognitive development.

Sociocultural theory

Human development results from dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society; culture is integral to development (Vygotsky).

Guided participation

Process by which mentors organize activities and support learning; joint construction of knowledge.

Zone of proximal development

Skills, knowledge, and concepts a learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help.

Evolutionary theory

Understanding contemporary behavior by examining emotions, instincts, and habits needed for survival over human history; concept of selective adaptation.

Eclectic perspective

Developmentalists selectively apply aspects of multiple theories rather than adhering exclusively to one, promoting open-mindedness and reducing bias.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.

Chromosome

Molecules of DNA; humans typically have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.

Zygote

The fertilized egg that begins duplication and division, and then differentiation and specialization occur.

Gene

Genes on the chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell instruct the cell to manufacture the proteins needed to sustain life and development.

Alleles

Variation of a gene or any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.

Genome

The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.

Copy number variations

One of 3 billion base pairs is duplicated more often in one person than another; affecting the likelihood of many inherited diseases, including cancers and mental illnesses.

Gamete

Cells involved in reproduction (implied in IVF and fertilization).

Autosome

The chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes.

Homozygous

Two genes of one pair that are the same in every letter of their code.

Heterozygous

Two genes of one pair that differ in some way.

23rd pair

Humans usually possess 46 chromosomes: 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, termed the 23rd pair.

XY

Male sex chromosomes; sex of offspring depends on whether father’s Y sperm fertilizes the ovum.

XX

Female sex chromosomes.

Epigenetics

The study of how the environment alters genetic expression; begins at conception and continues lifelong.

Microbiome

All of the microbes (bacteria, viruses, etc.) with all of their genes in a community; here, the millions of microbes of the human body.

Stem cells

Cells that result from early duplication and division; can produce any other cell; can be edited (CRISPR).

Golden rice

Rice high in vitamin A developed to combat blindness from vitamin A deficiency in children; did not reach market due to GMO concerns.

In vitro fertilization (IVF)

Fertilization that takes place outside the uterus by mixing sperm with surgically removed ova from the ovary and implanting a zygote into a uterus.

Monozygotic (MZ) twins

Twins that originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development; same genotype, slight variations in phenotype possible due to environment.

Dizygotic (DZ) twins

Twins that result from fertilization of two separate ova by two separate sperm; share half their genes.

Genotype

An organism’s entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.

Human Genome Project

International effort to map the complete human genetic code; essentially completed in 2001.

Dominant

Genes far more influential than recessive genes and are reflected in the phenotype.

Recessive

Genes hidden and carried in the genotype.

Carriers

Person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype; unexpressed gene occurs in half of the carrier’s gametes and is passed on to half of offspring.

X-linked

Gene carried on the X chromosome; special case of dominant–recessive pattern.

Heritability

Proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic factors.

Down syndrome

An extra chromosome 21 (trisomy-21); cognition and language develop slowly; common trait of friendliness.

Fragile X syndrome

X-linked recessive disorder; example of common recessive disorders.

Germinal period

First 2 weeks after conception; rapid cell division and beginning of cell differentiation; development of the placenta.

Embryonic period

Weeks 3–8 after conception; basic forms of all body structures develop; embryo vulnerable to teratogens.

Fetal period

Week 9 until birth; fetus grows in size, matures in functioning, and develops brain, lungs, and other organs.

Embryo

The developing organism from weeks 3–8; features such as head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, heart, and limbs develop.

Cephalocaudal

Growth and development from head to tail (top to bottom).

Proximodistal

Growth and development from the center of the body outward.

Fetus

The developing organism from the 9th week after conception until birth.

Anoxia

Lack of oxygen at birth; can cause brain damage or death if prolonged.

Doula

A trained professional who supports the birthing person during labor, providing physical, emotional, and informational help.

Apgar scale

A quick assessment of the newborn’s heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes; scored at 1 and 5 minutes after birth (0–2 points per category; desired score ≥7).

Cesarean section (c-section)

Surgical birth where the fetus is removed through an abdominal incision; medically indicated for certain complications.

Teratogen

Any agent (drug, virus, pollutant, malnutrition, stress, etc.) that can cause birth defects or complications.

Threshold effect

Certain teratogens are harmless until exposure exceeds a critical level.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Birth defects caused by heavy alcohol exposure during pregnancy; includes physical, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities.

Low birthweight (LBW)

Birthweight under 2,500 grams (5½ pounds).

Very low birthweight (VLBW)

Birthweight under 1,500 grams (3 pounds, 5 ounces).

Extremely low birthweight (ELBW)

Birthweight under 1,000 grams (2 pounds, 3 ounces).