mcat evergrowing (all topics) 🌱

indoctrination

how individuals eventually come to accept beliefs/attitudes without critical analysis/questioning (following the leader — extreme edition); not the same as socialization (beliefs are taught and enforced, rather than passively adopting to norms)

i.e. Uncle Sam is used to promote patriotism and duty towards the country.

correspondent inference theory

explains how people make inferences/judgments about others’ behavior to their personality especially when their behavior differs from societal norms; accidental behaviors + actions that align w/ societal expectations (doing ur job, tripping, etc.) are seen as situational.

i.e. knight in shining armor theory — are they saving the day b/c they believe what they’re doing is right, OR are they doing it to win the princess’ attention? what does this say abt the knight?

observational studies

dual role: researcher can either be inconspicuous/unobtrusive OR participant; aim is to minimize influence and study group behavior in natural settings

Fisherian selection

more attractive traits (regardless of their aid in survival) get passed down over generations; males get become more extreme looking to attract more females

i.e. male peacocks who look wack will continue to find mates more easily than blah blah male peacocks

self-efficacy

BELIEVE IN URSELF/capacity to improve urself

Treisman’s attenuation model

stimuli is eventually weakened (processed at a lower level)

utilitarian

the best action that maximizes happiness or reduce suffering (the benefits outweigh the cons)

scaffolding

“imma hold ur hand when i say this”.. type learning

offers help in difficult areas but overall encourages independence

nativist theory of language

humans HAVE to develop language (innate/inherent)

heuristic assessment

mental shortcuts used to evaluate info

functionalism

mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment

structuralism

focuses on breaking down mental processes into BASIC components

thalamus

relay center in the brain that is responsible for sensory and motor action

hippocampus

functions in memory (encoding + storing LTM)

retrospective study

referring to existing records/data to analyze patterns or relationships

longitudinal study

collects data from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time to observe changes or developments

mediating variable

explains the relationship between two other variables; clarifies how or why a certain effect or connection occurs by sitting in the middle of the causal pathway

example:

studying the effect of education level on income.

mediating variable = job position

in other words: education level affects the type of job one can get, which in turn affects income. (A → B → C)

confounding variable

variable is related to both independent and dependent variables, therefore distorting the relationship between them

example:

studying the relationship between coffee consumption and heart disease.

confounding variable = smoking

in other words: people who drink coffee might be more likely to smoke, and smoking is linked to heart disease. thus, smoking muddles the relationship between coffee and heart disease.

95% confidence interval

95% chance the value lies within the range, 5% chance it does NOT

incidence

number of new cases of a disease that develop in a specific time period

prevalence

how common a disease is, including new & existing cases at a specific point in time

locus of control

individual’s belief about the factors that control their life

internal = person believes they have control over their own life and actions

external = implies a person believes their life is controlled by external factors (fate)

socialization

process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society, and mass media is one source of normal socialization

assimilation

when an individual from one culture gradually takes on characteristics of another culture

piaget’s stages

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs) – Babies explore the world through senses & movement. Object permanence develops.

2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs) – Kids use symbols & imagination but lack logical thinking. Egocentrism & centration (focusing on one aspect of a problem) dominate.

3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) – Logical thinking emerges, but only about concrete things. Conservation & decentration develop.

4. Formal Operational (12+ yrs) – Abstract & hypothetical thinking kicks in. Metacognition and moral reasoning expand.

functionalism

sees society as a complex system where each part works together to promote stability and social order. It views institutions (like family, education, and government) as interdependent structures, each serving a specific function to maintain equilibrium.

kinship of affinity

Family ties based on choice, not blood

Harry Harlow Monkey Experiment

Love, comfort, and emotional security are more important than just basic needs like food in early development.

Result: preference for cloth mother (provided comfort) than wire mother (gave them food and stuff necessary for survival)

anomie

society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness

functional MRI

functional neuroimaging technique that allows the assessment of the operation of brain regions

nucleus accumbens

center for reward sensitivity, associated.with addiction

cognitive appraisal theory of emotion

individuals make different interpretations about stimuli, which leads to different emotional reaction

darwinian theory of emotion

focuses on EVOLUTION of emotion, what is its value in successful reproduction

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

cognitive and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously and independently of one another, with a behavioral response following them

lacks any element of cognitive appraisal, or conscious thought about how one’s situation may impact the emotion(s) felt

James-Lange theory of emotion

stimulus triggers a physiological response, which then leads to the subjective, conscious experience of emotion

limited → since certain physiological states may be experienced as different emotions depending on context

Schachter-Singer theory

a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion

Erikson’s stages of Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 yr) – Can I trust the world? 🍼 (Secure attachment or fear)

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 yrs) – Can I do things myself? 🚶 (Confidence or self-doubt)

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yrs) – Is it okay to take action? 🎨 (Curiosity or guilt for trying)

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) – Am I good at stuff? 🏆 (Competence or feeling useless)

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 yrs) – Who am I? 🤔 (Strong sense of self or confusion)

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 yrs) – Can I form close relationships? ❤ (Love or loneliness)

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 yrs) – Am I making an impact? 🌍 (Purpose or midlife crisis)

8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ yrs) – Did I live a meaningful life? 🕊 (Wisdom or regret)

Parkinson’s disease

cell death in substantia nigra → impaired dopamine signaling

Schizophrenia

typically have abnormally high levels of dopamine

agonist

increase, “enhances” neurotransmitter activity

unconditioned stimulus

noticeable stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate biological response

within-subject study design

individual variations in a measurement by comparing the scores of a subject in one condition to the scores of the same subject in other conditions → subject is their own control

gambler's fallacy

if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

house money effect

people take bigger risks after winning money because they see it as "free" or less valuable than their own hard-earned cash.

prisoner’s dilemma

shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so

separation

rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture.

marginalization

involves the rejection of both cultures

integration

nvolves identifying with both cultures

parietal lobe

processes different types of sensory info, like body position (proprioception), temperature (hot/cold), and touch (pressure & texture)

frontal lobe

controlling cognitive skills such as judgment and problem solving, emotional expression, and sexual behavior

hippocampus

involved in consolidating information from short-term and long-term memory

lateral geniculate nucleus

visual information relay center in the thalamus; detects and interprets information from the retina and passes it on to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

reciprocal determinism

person’s behavior influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment

social cognitive theory

people learn by watching others; if someone is rewarded for that behavior, they will likely behave that way too

cognitive dissonance theory

conflict between beliefs and actions that leads to changes in either beliefs or behavior

(declarations of belief GREATLY influence behavior/actions)

informal vs formal negative sanction

formal: OFFICIAL punishment for an action or behavior

informal: shaming non-normative behavior

positive sanction vs negative sanction

negative: punishment, shame, etc

positive: reward or praise

ideal bureaucracy characteristics

1. Hierarchy 📊 – Clear chain of command (boss → manager → worker).

2. Specialization 🎯 – People have specific, defined roles.

3. Rules & Regulations 📜 – Everything follows formal procedures.

4. Impersonality ⚖ – Decisions are based on rules, not personal connections.

5. Meritocracy 🎓 – Jobs/promotions are based on qualifications, not favoritism.

6. Efficiency & Predictability ⚙ – Work is standardized for consistency.

signal detection theory

ability to pick up the true or face presence or absence of stimuli in the environment

feature detection

ability to detect motion, color, shape, timing, and size

working memory

temporary storage and manipulation of info (problem solving)

long term memory

storage of information over an extended period (facts and events)

Kohlberg’s stages

• Pre-conventional = I do things to avoid punishment or get a reward.

• Conventional = I do things to fit in and follow rules.

• Post-conventional = I do things based on universal principles of justice and fairness.

drive reduction

is the idea that we do things to satisfy basic needs and reduce uncomfortable states

opponent-process theory

when we experience something that causes an intense emotional reaction, the initial reaction is often really strong, but over time, the opposite reaction starts to take over.

example:

• Excitement: First time riding a scary roller coaster = intense fear (your body reacts strongly).

• After a few rides: You still feel excitement, but you start feeling more calm or even joy after each ride (your mind adjusts).

self-determinism

focuses on the idea that people feel inherently motivated to engage in tasks that they are GOOD at performing

cognitive theory

focuses on mental contents — thoughts associated with a phenomena

anterior pituitary hormones

endorphins, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, growth hormone

posterior pituitary

vasopressin, oxytocin

adrenal cortex

aldosterone, cortisol

adrenal medulla

epinephrine, norepinephrine

Hans Eysenck

studied genetics of personality → trait of neuroticism in identical and fraternal twins

Gordon Allport

three types of traits contribute to personality: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits

reconstructive bias

bias related to memory; memories are not perfect and can be influenced by external factors or prior beliefs. When we recall past events, we reconstruct them based on what we expect or want to remember, which can lead to distorted or inaccurate memories.

attrition bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

elaboration likelihood model

explains how people can be persuaded

educational stratification

describes common situation in which people with more resources have access to more educational opportunities (inequalities in resource avail)

hidden curriculum

describes norms, values, and behaviors that are imparted in an education program → not part of the curriculum

social capital

access to social programs and institutions promotes social capital → access to networks that allow for sharing of support and resources

variable-ratio vs variable interval

ratio produces highest response rates → most resistant to extinction

interval = LESS effective than ratio

construct validity

manner in which the terms of the study are defined

normative influence

influence to conform with the expectations of others to gain social approval

informational influence

influence to accept info from others as evidence about reality and can come into play when uncertain about info or what might be correct

double approach-avoidance conflict

two options where each option has both appealing and negative features; when you're facing two options, and both have good and bad aspects to them. So, you're torn between two choices, and each choice has things you want and things you don't want.

approach avoidance conflict

when you’re torn between wanting to pursue something because it has positive aspects, but also wanting to avoid it because it has negative aspects.

attribution theory

about how we explain the causes of our own and others' behaviors. Basically, when someone does something, we try to figure out why they did it.

attribution error

when we make mistakes in how we explain behavior. A common one is the fundamental attribution error, where we tend to overestimate the role of someone's personality and underestimate the role of external factors.

meritocracy

system under which individuals are rewarded on the basis of individual skill, talent, or achievement

oligarchy

system in which a small number of individuals hold the majority of the power

spatial discrimination

one’s ability to distinguish between two points of contact with one’s skin (two point discrimination test)

incentive theory

factors outside of individuals, including community values and culture, can motivate behavior

exchange-rational choice

the idea that people make decisions based on a cost-benefit analysis. We weigh the rewards (benefits) and costs of an action or relationship and choose the option that maximizes rewards while minimizing costs.

“give and take” approach

social epidemiology

is the study of how social factors (like income, education, environment, and culture) impact the health and disease distribution within populations. It looks at the social determinants of health and how things like social inequality and access to resources can affect people's health outcomes.

shadowing

cognitive process where you repeat or mirror information or behavior you’ve observed, often unconsciously.

brain area for language processing

lateralized in left hemisphere

proximal stimulus

Direct stimulation that affects sensory receptors (what you're directly experiencing).

psychophysical discrimination testing

This test measures your ability to detect differences between stimuli (like sounds, lights, or weights). For example, you might be asked if two tones sound the same or different. It's used to study how we perceive and discriminate sensory information.

operational span testing

This is a cognitive test that measures your working memory—how well you can hold and manipulate information. You might be asked to remember a list of words while solving math problems, and your ability to do both tasks simultaneously is tested.

partial report technique

This is a memory test where you’re shown a bunch of information (like letters) very quickly. Afterward, you're only asked to recall a small portion of it (like one row or column). It helps researchers understand how much information we actually take in at once.wor

word association testing

In this test, you’re given a word (like "dog") and you have to quickly respond with the first word that comes to your mind (like "bone" or "bark"). It’s often used to study how we link ideas and concepts in our minds.