Philosophy of Human Nature Midterm Study

Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas was a philosopher and theologian, philosophy with Christian doctrine. He is known for theological and philosophical questions concerning the nature of God, ethics, and the relationship between faith and reason.

Augustine

An early Christian theologian and philosopher from North Africa, whose works, including 'Confessions' and 'City of God', influenced Western Christianity and philosophy significantly. He is known for his thoughts on original sin, grace, and the nature of the Church.

Aristotle

An ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great, known for his contributions to various fields including metaphysics, ethics, politics, and natural sciences.

Plato

An ancient Greek philosopher and student of Socrates, known for his works on philosophy, politics, and ethics.

Socrates

An ancient Greek philosopher, considered one of the founders of Western philosophy, who is best known for his method of inquiry and dialogue, known as the Socratic method, which emphasizes asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.

Order of the Greek Philosophers’ teaching

Socrates —> Plato —> Aristotle —> Alexander the Great

Law as Reason

Aquinas term — asserts that law is fundamentally rooted in reason. "Law is a rule and measure of acts that induces persons to act or refrain from acting. For law is derived from binding because law obliges persons to act. And the rule and measure of human acts is reason..."

This means that law, in its essence, is a rational ordering of human behavior.

What is the Common Good in Aquinas’ law

The purpose of law is to direct actions towards the common good. "Law in the strict sense primarily and chiefly regards ordaining things for the common good."

It's not about individual preferences but about the well-being of the entire community.

What are the four kinds of Law, and their order according to Aquinas?

• Eternal Law - God’s plans for governance around the world

• Natural Law - Way rational beings participate in Eternal/God’s Law

• Human Law - Developments of a Natural Law worked out by human reason

• Divine Law - Laws revealed by Divinity to direct things to their end

What is Eternal Law?

Aquinas posits an eternal law, which is essentially God's plan for the universe. "The plan of governance of the world existing in God as the ruler of the universe has the nature of law. And since God's reason conceives eternally...we need to say that such law is eternal."

All other laws (natural, human, divine) derive from the eternal law.

What is Natural Law?

This is humanity's participation in the eternal law, discovered through reason. "The natural law is simply rational creatures' participation in the eternal law."

It's the inherent understanding of good and evil.

What is Human Law?

This is positive law, enacted by human authorities. Aquinas argues that just human laws must be derived from natural law. "Nothing is just or lawful in earthly laws that human beings have not derived for themselves from the eternal law."

Unjust laws, deviating from reason, are more akin to violence.

What are the limitations of Human Law?

Human law cannot prohibit all vices or command every virtuous act. There are actions that are morally indifferent. Human law does not punish one who wants to kill and does not, but the divine law does.

What is Divine Law?

Law given by God through revelation, such as the Ten Commandments. Humans need divine law because natural and human law are insufficient for salvation.

How does Aquinas think Law is connected to Virtue?

Aquinas believes the effect of law should be to make people good by promoting virtue. "The proper effect of law is to make those to whom it is given good, either absolutely or in some respect."

What is Telos (Ends)?

Aristotle emphasizes that every activity aims at some good.

"Every craft and every discipline, and likewise action and decision, seems to seek some good."

What are the Hierarchy of Ends?

Some ends are subordinate to others.

For instance, making bridles is subordinate to horsemanship. Eventually, all pursuits are subordinate to the highest good: happiness (eudaimonia).

What is Happiness (Eudaimonia)?

Aristotle defines the highest good as happiness. "If, then, the things achievable by action have some end that we wish for because of itself, and we wish for the other things because of this end...it is clear that this end will be the good, that is to say, the best good."

Happiness is not mere pleasure but a life lived in accordance with virtue.

What is Virtue as a Mean for Aristotle?

Aristotle argues that moral virtue is a state that lies in a mean between two extremes, excess and deficiency. "Virtue is a state that decides, consisting in a mean...It is a mean between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency."

For example, courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness.

How does Habituation relate to Virtue?

Aristotle argues that Virtue is acquired through habit. "Virtue of character arises from habit." We become just by doing just actions, temperate by doing temperate actions, and so on.

Legislators in cities make the citizens good by habituating them.

What are Friendships according to Aristotle?

Friendship is considered a virtue; there are friendships of utility, pleasure, and virtue. Friendships of virtue are most complete and involve mutual goodwill and shared character.

What is the Socratic Method?

Plato's Apology depicts Socrates's commitment to questioning and examining others, even when it makes him unpopular. He sees himself as a "gadfly" stirring up the city.

Why does Socrates compare himself to a gadfly?

Socrates compares himself to a gadfly (a stinging insect) and Athens to a large, sluggish horse. He argues that his persistent questioning and challenging of the status quo serve to awaken the city from complacency.

Why does Socrates (written by Plato) say that human wisdom is worthless?

Socrates claimed the wisest among mortals understood that his wisdom is worthless. Socrates saw that humans only think they have wisdom.

In Plato’s Republic, what is The Allegory of the Cave?

In The Republic, the allegory of the cave illustrates the journey from ignorance to enlightenment.

Those who escape the cave and see the truth have a duty to return and try to educate others, even if they are met with resistance. It is a difficult journey to go into the light to being able to recognize shadows.

What does Plato say about Justice and Law in Crito?

In Crito, Plato explores the tension between individual conscience and the demands of the state.

Socrates argues that it is never right to do wrong, even in retaliation. He believes one must obey the laws of the state or persuade it to change them, emphasizing the importance of respecting the social contract. It is impious to bring violence against one's country.

What is The Nature of Piety?

Socrates refuses each of Euthyphro’s definitions of piety; Prosecuting wrongdoers (like Euthyphro prosecuting his father), what is dear to the gods, and what all gods love.

The dialogue ends inconclusively, with Socrates demonstrating that Euthyphro cannot provide a satisfactory definition of piety. Ultimately, the text suggests that true piety is not just about pleasing the gods but requires deeper philosophical examination.

What is Restlessness of the Soul according to Augustine?

Augustine describes a profound sense of restlessness until he finds God. His heart was restless until it rests in God.

What is Inner Division according to Augustine?

Augustine's Confessions vividly portrays his internal struggle between spiritual desires and sensual pleasures. "This debate in my heart was a struggle of myself against myself."

This inner conflict is a key aspect of his spiritual journey.

What is The Power of Habit according to Augustine?

Augustine acknowledges the strong pull of ingrained habits that hold him back from conversion.

What is Augustine's conversion ultimately attributed to?

Divine Grace — Augustine's concept of Divine Grace is central to his theology, emphasizing that human beings cannot achieve salvation or righteousness on their own but are entirely dependent on God's grace.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 90 “On the Essence of Law”

Law as an Ordinance of Reason – Law is a rational directive, not arbitrary, and must aim at the common good.

Law’s End is the Common Good – Laws exist to benefit society as a whole, not individual interests.

Law is Made by Proper Authority – Only legitimate rulers can create laws. Law Must

Be Promulgated – A law must be known to those it governs to be effective.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 91 “On Different Kinds of Law”

Discusses the various types of law, including eternal, natural, human, and divine law, and their relationships.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 92 “On the Effects of Law”

Law as a Rule and Measure – Law aims to make people good by directing their actions.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 93 “On the Eternal Law”

Eternal Law Governs the Universe – All things, rational and non-rational, follow God’s eternal law.

Eternal Law is Known Partially – Humans understand eternal law through reason and natural law.

All Laws Derive from Eternal Law – Natural, human, and divine laws all stem from it. 

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 94 “On the Natural Law”

Basic Principle of Natural Law – "Do good and avoid evil" is its first and fundamental precept.

Primary Precepts of Natural Law – Natural law includes self-preservation, reproduction, education, and living in society.

Can Natural Law Be Changed? – Its basic principles cannot change, but specific applications may.

Can Natural Law Be Blotted from the Heart? – In general, no, but individuals may ignore it due to vice or corruption.

Relationship Between Natural and Human Law – Human law should be based on natural law.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 95 “On Human Law”

Necessity of Human Law – Since people do not always act according to reason, human laws are needed to maintain order.

Human Law Must Derive from Natural Law – If human laws contradict natural law, they are unjust and not true laws.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 96 “On the Power of Human Laws”

Law and Human Conduct – Human law should direct people toward virtue but cannot force moral perfection.

Law and All People – Laws should be made for the common good and apply to everyone, but not all vices should be outlawed—only those harming society.

Custom and Law – Custom can shape law because laws should align with the people’s habits and traditions.

Legislative Authority – Only those in legitimate authority should make laws. Laws

Should Be Just – Just laws must be fair, directed toward the common good, and proportionate.

Unjust Laws – Laws that contradict divine or natural law are unjust and may not be morally binding. 

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 100 “The Moral Precepts of the Old Law”

All Commandments Aim at Love – Every law should lead to love of God and neighbor.

Divine Law and Human Law – Human laws should reflect divine law, but divine law is superior and more comprehensive.

Aquinas's Treatise on Law — Q. 105 “The Power of the Lawgiver”

Justice in Government – Laws must ensure justice, promote peace, and be adapted to the conditions of the people.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics — Book I

The Goal of Life is Eudaimonia – Every action aims at some good, and the highest good is eudaimonia (often translated as "flourishing" or "happiness"), which is achieved through a life of virtue.

Happiness is an Activity of the Soul in Accordance with Virtue – It is not just pleasure, wealth, or honor but a rational activity guided by virtue.

Function Argument – Just as a knife’s purpose is to cut, a human’s function is to live rationally and virtuously.

Moral and Intellectual Virtue – Moral virtues arise from habit, while intellectual virtues come from teaching.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics — Book II

Virtue as a Mean – Moral virtue is a golden mean between two extremes (excess and deficiency). For example, courage is the mean between recklessness and cowardice.

Virtues Are Acquired Through Habituation – Virtue is not innate but developed through practice.

Pleasure and Pain as Moral Indicators – A virtuous person takes pleasure in doing good, while a vicious person finds pleasure in vice.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis) – One must use reason to determine the right mean in different situations.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics — Book VIII

Friendship is Essential for the Good Life – It is a key component of happiness.

Three Types of Friendship: Friendship of Utility – Based on mutual benefit (e.g., business partners).

Friendship of Pleasure – Based on shared enjoyment (e.g., social friends).

Friendship of Virtue – Based on mutual respect and the pursuit of the good, the highest and most lasting form.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics — Book IX

Self-Love as the Basis of Friendship – A good person must first love themselves properly before loving others.

True Friends Are Like a Second Self – A virtuous friendship mirrors one’s own moral character.

Friendship and Happiness – The happiest people have deep, virtuous friendships that encourage moral excellence.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics - Book X

Pleasure and Happiness – Pleasure is not the highest good but plays a role in a happy life.

The Superiority of the Contemplative Life – The best life is one devoted to intellectual contemplation (theoria), as it is the most self-sufficient and closest to divine existence.

Laws and Education – Virtuous living requires good laws and proper moral education from childhood.

Plato's Dialogues — The Apology

Socrates defends himself against charges of impiety and corrupting the youth.

He presents himself as a gadfly, provoking Athens to seek wisdom.

He argues that death is not to be feared and that a good person cannot be harmed.

Ends with Socrates’ famous declaration that "the unexamined life is not worth living."

Plato's Dialogues — Euthyphro

Socrates and Euthyphro debate the nature of piety.

Euthyphro claims piety is what the gods love, but Socrates questions whether something is pious because the gods love it or if the gods love it because it is pious (Euthyphro Dilemma).

The dialogue ends inconclusively, showing the difficulty of defining piety.

Plato's Dialogues - Crito

Crito urges Socrates to escape from prison before his execution.

Socrates argues that one must respect the laws of the city, even if they lead to injustice.

Introduces the idea of a social contract between citizens and the state.

Plato's Dialogues - Phaedo

Set on the last day of Socrates' life, discussing the soul's immortality.

Socrates gives four arguments for the soul’s eternal nature.

He describes death as the soul’s liberation from the body, allowing it to reach true knowledge.

Main themes and learnings from Augustine's Confessions

• Examines Augustine's spiritual journey, his struggles with sin, his conversion, and his understanding of God's grace and forgiveness.

• His engagement with Neoplatonism (especially Plotinus) helps him see God as an immaterial, ultimate reality.

• His Confessions, particularly the focus on personal conversion from worldly pleasures and ambitions.

• Augustine emphasizes that conversion is not just human effort but a result of God’s grace.