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Algae
not a taxonomic group
unicellular or filamentous photoautotrophs
lacks roots, stems, and leaves
mostly aquatic, water is necessary for growth and reproduction
Characteristics of Algae
locations depend on nutrient availability, light wavelength, surfaces to attach
pneumocyst: floating gas filled bladder providing buoyancy, with sexual and asexual reproduction
most are photosynthetic
chlorophyll a and accessory pigments are responsible for distinctive colors of algae
oomycotes: chemoheterotrophic
Brown Algae
kelp - phylum of algae
cellulose and alginic acid cell walls
multicellular and macroscopic, can reach lengths of 50 meters
produces algin, a thickener for foods
Red Kelp
phylum of algae
have branched thalli
most are multicellular
able to live at greater depths than other algae
harvested for agar and carrageenan, some produce a lethal toxin
Green Algae
phylum of algae
cellulose cell walls, unicellular or multicellular
chlorophyll a and b
stores starch
gave rise to terrestrial plants
Diatoms
phylum of algae
pectin and silica cell walls
unicellular or filamentous
stores oil and produces domoic acid, causes neurological disease
Dinoflagellates
phylum of algae
cellulose in plasma membrane
unicellular
component of plankton (large group of free floating aquatic organisms)
neurotoxins (saxitoxins) causing paralytic shellfish poisoning
ex: pfiesteria piscicida: genus of toxic finolagellate responsible for massive fish kills
Algae Functions
fix CO2 into organic molecules
produce 80% of earths O2
algal blooms: increases in planktonic algae that result in toxin release or die and consume oxygen
produce oil
symbionts of animals
Protozoa
unicellular eukaryotes
inhabit water and soil, over 50,000 species
some are normal microbiota in animals while some cause disease
ex: plasmodium: causes malaria
animal like nutrition
complex life cycles, some produce a cyst to survive adverse conditions
Trophozoite
feeding and growing form of protozoa
Schizogony
a type of protozoa asexual reproduction
multiple fissions
also can occur by fission budding
sexual reproduction is conjugation
Characteristics of Protozoa
require large amounts of water
many have outer protective pellicle, requiring specialized structures to take in food
ciliates wave cilia toward mouthlike cytosome
amebae phagocytize food
food is digested in vacuole and waste is eliminated through anal pore
Feeding Grooves (Excavate)
medically important protozoa
move by means of flagella and undulating membranes
ex: diplomonads: giardia intestinalis
ex: parabasalids: trichomonas vaginalis
ex: euglenozoa: trypamosome spp
Amoebozoa (Ameba)
medically important protozoa
move by means of pseudopods
Ciliates
medically important protozoa
move by means of cilia
Conjugation
a ciliate undergoing sexual reproduction
Diplomonads
medically important protozoa
no mitochondria, multiple flagella
Parabasalids
medically important protozoa
undulating membranes, no cyst stage
Eugleenozoa
medically important protozoa
photoautrophs or facultative chemotrophs
hemoflagellates: transmitted by bites of blood feeding insects
Giardiasis
caused by giardia duodenalis
flagella protozoan that forms cysts in feces and water, trophozoites in body
attaches to intestinal wall
acquired by ingesting cysts after person to person contact or contaminated water
shed by wild mammals, including beavers
prolonged diarrhea, malaise, weight loss, flatulence, cramps, hydrogen sulfide in stool and breath
diagnosed with microscopic exam of stool samples
Trichomoniasis
caused by trichomonas vaginalis, normal inhabitant of vagina and urethra
grown when acidity of vagina is changed
irritation and a profuse, frothy, greenish yellow, foul odor discharge
diagnosed with microscopic identification or DNA probe
Chagas Disease
caused by tryoanosoma cruzi
flagelleted protozoan
reservoir in rodents, opossums, and armadillos
endemic in central and south america
vector is reduviid bug (kissing bug), which defecates trypanosomes into human bite wounds
acute stage of disease: fever and swollen glands
20-30% progress to chronic form which can cause megasophagus and megacolon years later, death due to heart damage
therapy is difficult bc it multiplies intracellularly
Amebae
move by extending pseudopods
Entamoeba Histolyctia
type of amebae
causes amebic dysentery
Acanthamoeba
type of amebae
infects corneas and causes blindness, can infect brain (encephalitis)
Balamuthia
type of amebae
granulomatous amebic encephalitis
Apicomplexa
nonmotile
obligate intracellular parasites
medically important protozoa
apical complex is a specialized structure that facilitates entry of parasite to host cell
has a complex life cycle
ex: malaria: plasmodium with mosquito vector
Cryptosporidium
type of apicomplexa
transmitted via feces
causes waterborne illness
Babesia Microti
type of apicomplexa
transmitted by tick lxodes scapularis
causes fever and anemia in immunocompromised
Toxoplasma Gondii
type of apicomplexa
transmitted by cats
causes fecal infections
food borne and congenital transmission
Definitive Host
organism that harbors the adult, sexually mature form of a parasite
Intermediate Host
organism that harbors the larval or asexual stage of a helminth or protozoan
Reservoir
continual source of infection
Vector
arthropod that carries disease causing organisms from host to another
Plasmodium
type of apicomplexa
causes malaria
sexually reproduces in anopheles mosquito
mosquito injects a sporozoite into the bite, this undergoes schizgony in the liver, merozoites are produced
merozoites infect RBC’s forming ring stage inside the cell
RBC’s rupture and merozoites infect new RBC’s
Ciliates
move by cilia arranged in precise rows
ex: balantidium coli: only human parasite, causes dysentery
Cellular Slime Molds
resemble ameba
ingest fungi and bacteria by phagocytosis
cells aggregate to form stalks and spore caps that differentiate into spores
Plasmodial Slime Molds
mass of protoplasm with multiple nuclei
moves as a giant ameba
Cytoplasmic Streaming
protoplasm moves and changes speed and direction to distribute oxygen and nutrients
Helminths
parasitic worms
two phyla:
platyhelminthes: flatworms
nematoda: roundworms
Characteristics of Helminths
multicellular eukaryotic animals
specialized to live in hosts
lack digestive systems and have a reduced nervous system
reduced or lacking locomotion
complex reproductive system
Dioecious
life cycle
separate male and female sexes
Monoecious
life cycle
hermaphroditic
male and female reproductive systems in one animal
Trematodes
type of platyhelminths (fluke)
flat leaf shaped
ventral and oral sucker
absorb food through cuticle fluke
schistosoma: blood fluke
paragonimus: lung fluke
Cestodes (Tapeworms)
type of platyhelminths
scolex: head that has suckers for attachment
absorb food through cuticle
proglottids: body segments that contain male and female reproductive organs
Cestodes: Humans as Definitive Hosts
harbor adult sexually reproducing worms
eggs from proglottids are ingested, hatch into larvae, and bore into intestinal wall
produce cysticerci
ex: taenia solium: pork tapeworm
Cestodes: Humans as Intermediate Hosts
harbor larval hosts
eggs are ingested and hatch into intestine
larvae migrate to the liver or lungs and develop hydatid cysts
ex: echinococcus granulosus
Nematodes: Roundworms
cylindrical, has complete digestive systems
dioecious, males contain spicules
have free-living species and parasitic species
eggs and larvae are infective to humans
Ascaris Lumbricoides
type of nematode
infects human intestines
Baylisascaris Procyonis
type of nematode
raccoon roundworm
Trichuris Trichiura
type of nematode
whipworm
Enterobius Vermicularis
type of nematode
pinworm
Strongyloides
type of nematode
reemerging infection
Necator Americanus/ Ancylostoma Duodenale
type of nematode
hookworms, enter the skin and go to intestine
Dirofilaria Immitis
type of nematode
spread by mosquitos, causes heartworm
Arthropods
animals with segmented bodies, hard external skeletons, and jointed legs
have mechanical and biological (multiplies in vector) transmission
ex: Arachnida: eight legs like spiders, mites, ticks
ex: crustacea: four antennae like crabs and crayfish
ex: insecta: six legs like bees, flies, mosquitoes, and lice
Scabies
caused by sarcoptes scabiei mites
burrow in the skin to lay eggs
causes inflammatory skin lesions with intense itching
transmitted via intimate contact
Lyme Disease
caused by borreliella burgdorferi
most common tickborne disease in the US
field mice are common reservoir
nymphal stage of lxodes tick feed on mice and infect humans
tick feed on deer, deer don’t get infected
tick must attach for 2-3 days to infect human
Bedbugs
detect host from exhaled carbon dioxide
suck the hosts blood and depart to lay eggs
almost eradicated in 1900’s by DDT and pesticides
now, some are resistant and can only be killed by chemicals with toxic side effects
Features of Viruses
obligatory intracellular parasites require living host cells to multiply
contain DNA or RNA and a protein coat
multiply within living host cell, using hosts synthesizing machinery
no ribosomes or ATP generating mechanism
Host Range
the spectrum of host cells a virus can infect
most viruses infect only one specific cell type determined by specific host attachment sites and cellular factors
animal cells have receptor on plasma membrane
Bacteriophages
viruses that infect bacteria
phage receptor site may be part of bacterial cell wall or fimbriae or flagella
Viral Structure
virion: complete fully developed viral particle
nucleic acid DNA or RNA can be single or double stranded, linear or circular
has capsid, capsomeres, envelope, and spikes
Capsid
protein coat made of capsomeres (protein subunits)
Envelope
present on some viruses, external to the capsid
composed of lipid, protein, and carbohydrates
partially formed from the plasma membrane of host when the virus buds from the cell
Spikes
found on some enveloped viruses
made of carbohydrates and proteins
may be used for attachment
Nucleic Acid
viral genome is DNA or RNA, never both
viral genome may be single stranded or double stranded
may be linear or circular or segmented
total amount varies from a few thousand to 250,000 nucleotides
Helical Viruses
hollow, cylindrical capsid that is helical
ex: virus that causes rabies and ebola
Polyhedral Viruses
many sided
most are icosahedron (20 triangular facets and 12 corners)
ex: adenoviruses and poliovirus
Enveloped Viruses
most are roughly spherical
Complex Viruses
complicated viruses
ex: bacteriophage
Virus Taxonomy
baltimore classification system: based on viruses nucleic acid and how its mRNA is produced
seven groups referred to as realms
genus name ends in -virus
family named end in -viridae
order named end in -ales
Viral Species
a group of viruses sharing the same genetic information and ecological niche (host)
Growing Bacteriophages in the Lab
grown in bacteria
viruses must be grown in living cells
form plaques, which are clearings on a lawn of bacteria on the surface of agar
each plaque corresponds to a single virus, can be expressed as plaque-forming units (PFU)
Growing Animal Viruses in living Animals
mice, rabbits, guinea pigs
some human viruses cannot be grown in animals, or can be grown but may not cause disease in animals
Growing Animal Viruses in Embryonated Eggs
virus injected into the egg
viral growth is signaled by changes or death of the embryo
used to grow viruses for some vaccines
Primary Cell Lines
tissues are treated with enzymes to separate cells
Cytopathic Effect (CPE)
viruses are detected via visible changes or deterioration of monolayer cells
Cell Cultures - Growing Animal Viruses
may use diploid cell lines
derived from human embryos - can be maintained for 100 generations
often used for cultivation or rabies virus for vaccine development
Continuous Cell Lines - Growing Animal Viruses
derived from transformed (cancerous) cells
can be maintained indefinitely
ex: HeLa cell line
Viral Identification
cytopathic effects observed on cell culture
serological tests like ELISA, virus is detected and identified by reaction with antibodies
nucleic acid tests: PCR
Viral Multiplication
for a virus to multiply it must…
it must invade the host cell
it must take over hosts metabolic machinery
a single virion can give to several or to thousands of similar viruses in a single host cell
has one step growth curve
Lytic Cycle
phage causes lysis and death of host cell
ex: tequatrovirus (t-even bacterophages) that infect E. coli
Lysogenic Cycle
phage DNA is incorporated in the host DNA
phage conversion
specialized transduction
Lytic Cycle Steps
attachment: phage attaches by the tail fibers to the host cell
penetration: phage lysozyme opens the cell wall, tail sheath contracts to force the tail core and DNA into cell (similar to hypodermic syringe)
biosynthesis: production of phage DNA and proteins, host cell protein synthesis is halted
maturation: assembly of phage particles
release: phage lysozyme breaks the cell wall
Bacteriophage Lambdavirus
infection with lambda virus may initiate a lytic or lysogenic cycle
Lysogeny
phage remains latent, no lysis of host cell
phage DNA incorporates into host cell DNA
Prophage
inserted phage DNA
when host cell replicated its chromosome, it also replicated prophage DNA