✅Liberalism

key principles/ arguments of liberalism

• States can work together/ cooperate for common goals (not power-maximisers)

• Other groups matter (IGOs etc) not just states

• Look for peaceful solutions to problems- not just war/ security focused ‘war as a last resort’

• Collective security (looking out for all countries - not just own security)

• Need IGOs (institutions, rules, authority) to defend human rights/ peace

Liberalism key beliefs

• States are not the only actors

• International law is possible + desirable

• A state’s primary aim should not simply be to maximise power (non-zero sum)

• States can mutually benefit from cooperation

• Democracy in central to ensuring peace and security

• International trade creates interdependence

liberal key belief that states aren’t the only actors:

• Non-state actors can provide alternative ideas + choices

• Still believe that states are important but others matter too (TNCs, NGOs, IGOs)

liberalism key belief that international law is possible + desirable:

• It should hold states accountable + ensure basic standards, e.g. human rights

• Should be a way to stop/ prevent states from breaking the law (globally or towards own citizens)

Liberalism key belief that a states primary aim should not simply be to maximise power:

• The idea of power as a zero-sum game is flawed

• Looking at power in a more complex way, not finite/ fixed, not ‘I win you lose’

Liberalism key belief that states can mutually benefit from cooperation:

• E.g. in trade, security, + development

• Trade deals make goods cheaper, everyone is better off

Liberalism key belief that democracy is central to ensuring peace + security:

• Democratic states rarely fight

• Democratic peace theory:

  • Citizens rarely vote for war - greater trust - shared values

• Encourage spread of democracy

Key liberalism belief that international trade creates interdependence:

• Bringing states together + reducing conflict

• All rely on everyone else

• Inc global trade is good

• War damaging to trade + economy

• Cheaper to trade for recourses that take in war

Liberalism rejects the pessimistic view of?

human nature as inherently selfish + leaning always towards conflict, competition + confrontation

liberals + human rationality?

• Human beings are rational + reasonable + therefore are able to solve problems. That occur in global politics if they work together

• This rational problem solving means it's desirable to create dispute resolution forums, e.g. UN, + to keep working on collective action problems w other states thru treaty agreements

liberals + clashes within the state of nature

• Liberals agree (including John Locke) agree that clashes would occur within a 'state of nature' i.e. the natural order if no rules or government is organised in its place, therefore they see a need for international law + human rights protections just as they see a need for state structures in national politics

liberals + human rights

• See a vital need to protect human rights, wherever they may live in the world, when individuals are sufficiently protected from those in power, they are more likely to reach their potential,

  • this is also reflected in the idea of a 'social contract' in which individuals should have certain rights protected as well as responsibilities to abide by laws of the state

liberals + morality?

In terms of morality, the 'harm principle' applies in both global + national politics, providing a useful guide to striking a balance between freedom of states + of individuals both of which are important to liberals but need closely defined limits

liberals + foundational morality?

• The liberal view of 'foundational equality' is a moral view that individuals are born equal + should have the same opportunities to flourish + achieve their aspirations, liberals attach great importance to reducing poverty in global politics

liberals + democracy?

• Democracy offers the best chances for individuals to flourish freely + fairly, they view a world of democracies to be safest both for individuals + to reduce the likelihood of inter-states conflict. Liberals are suspicious of non-democratic + autocratic states

harm principle=?

you should be allowed to do anything up until the point it harms others

Complex interdependence is the idea that?

 states + their fortunes are inextricably linked. An economic crisis in 1 state has the potential to impact other states as economies are tied together thru trade. A civil war in 1 state has the potential to impact other states if refugees flee that conflict in fear of their safety

Globalisation is seen as a key factor in?

increasing these types of links between states + their dependence on each other

Globalisation can be though of as?

 increased links between + dependence on states + all other non-state actors in global politics. It as primarily occurred due to improved communication links + tech.

Liberals are convinced that globalisation is a reality that needs to be managed through?

increased cooperation, they believe that greater interconnectedness + cooperation is the direction of travel for global politics

An analogy often used to explain complex interdependence + liberalism is that of?

a cobweb, in contrast to the 'billiard ball model' the 'cobweb model' represents the links + dependencies between states rather than the competitive clashes between states of the realist model, if 1 strand breaks, the cobweb may begin to disintegrate, the cobweb can also grow bigger + stronger, connecting more states in more cooperative relationships

e.g. of a cobweb strand breaking? (complex interdependence)

the US's inc distancing from/ rejection of liberal institutions (e.g. withdrawing from Paris climate agreement/ WHO) meant that overall, institutions that bind states together were weakened + even broken away from during the 1st Trump presidency, on the other hand, the formation of organisations such as the EU + their expansion to include new members will strengthen the connections within the cobweb of interconnected states

e.g. of complex interdependence (COVID)

the impact of states closing large parts of their economies caused significant damage to global trade, states relied on pharmaceutical companies in other states for vaccines, leading to challenges ensuring they were distributed widely + quickly

Complex interdependence in complex + global governance institutions need to be

robust + flexible to resolve challenges fairly, liberals would say states action alone is not an option

The 'cobweb model' is a way of explaining liberalism + complex interdependence, it's not

a theory in its own right

Complex interdependence + the global financial crisis

• In 2008-9 a housing price crash sparked a lending crisis in US banks which spread around the world + the effects were felt in global banking systems

• Economic growth slowed accross the world + unemployment rose

• As part of international efforts to deal w the crisis, in April 2009, Brown hosted a group of 20 (G20) summit in London, resulting in international govt + the IMF agreeing a financial stimulus to lend much needed funds into the international banking system

• The crisis raised Qs of whether or not the international system needed tighter regulation + if the IMF could have done more to prevent/react to the crisis

Types of globalisation

economic

political

social

economic globalisation

• Much improved communication + transportation have inc trade between states. There is greater economic interconnectedness as more states are trading w each other as it becomes easier to do so. International economic organisations such as the WTO have played their part in this expansion of new trade agreements, developed economies have invested heavily in many developing economic

political globalisation

• Political decision making has become increasingly globalised through the growth in international + regional governmental organisations, the no. political challenges that require a collected response have also inc, including climate change, organised crime, health pandemics,

social globalisation

• Communities that were previously self-contained have become inc connected in terms of shared media + culture. Inc global immigration has created much more diverse societies, altho some argue this has led to an erosion of national culture, it's also enabled ideas to travel quickly across borders,

e.g. of political globalisation

• e.g. COVID, + global terrorism. The no. international + regional political institutions managing shared interests has inc, as has their membership

e.g. of social globalisation

• e.g. the speed w which the arab spring spread in 2011 from Tunisia to Egypt + the other middle eastern + north African states has been attributed to the power of social media + satellite news channels

liberals + Possibility of harmony + balance

• Liberals believe that there is a possibility that relations between states can be harmonious + balances. There is no need for states to be continuously competing w one another/ clashing.

• There are 3 key elements that underpins this potential democracy, the existence of IGOs + international trade:

democracy

IGOs

economic interdependence + trade

Many analysts note that conflict between democratic states is rare + that democracy acts as an?

important restrain on states fighting each other. Govts in democratic states are more accountable to their citizens than in undemocratic states.

Usually govts of democratic states have to seek the permission of _____ to engage in military action?

their national legislature

e.g. of govts of democratic states having to seek the permission of their national legislature to engage in military action?

in 2013 the UK parl voted against military action against the Assad regime's chemical weapons programme in Syria

It has become inc common (but not compulsory) for the UK parl to be consulted before ___?

UK armed forces are committed to military action

The refusal of UK parl to support military action was considered to be a factor in the?

Obama administration later deciding not to put possible military action in Syria to  a vote in congress. Leaders + govts in democratic states also have to bear in mind that military action may be unpopular + that they may be voted out in elections if this is the case

Liberals argue that democratic constraints lead to _____?

 more harmonious relations between states

Liberals believe that IGOs encourage ____?

harmony + balance as they provide a means of peaceful dispute resolution between states

e.g.  that IGOs encourage harmony + balance as they provide a means of peaceful dispute resolution between state

he UK security council, for e.g., is a forum in which the most powerful states can take action to resolve + stabilise conflict around the world

 While IGOs don't have full authority over states, liberals believe they are the closest possible solution to?

the dangerous notion of an anarchical system of global politics

IGOs may not resolve every dispute, but they offer a forum to ____?

defuse some disputes altogether, reduce tensions in some + keep open the possibility of dialogue in othersdefuse some disputes altogether, reduce tensions in some + keep open the possibility of dialogue in others

Liberals believe that the more states are trading w each other, the more they are_____?

dependent on each other + the more likely it is that conflict would be mutually harmful

liberals also believe that free trade in a global system governed by rules has? + what happened previously

formalised + legitimised the global sharing of resources. Previously, states fought each other for territory + resources, but in modern times, global free trade has offered a peaceful means for states to gain from each other's resources

These 3 restraints on conflict are visualised thru the?

Kantian Triangle

liberal philosopher Immanuel Kant identified tha

 'republican constitutions (democratic states), commercial exchange (economic interdependence) + a system of international law would help foster peaceful relations between states'

The Kantian triangle helps to understand ____?

 the relationship between the 3 core elements + how each: helps to strengthen the others + contributes towards the overall outcome of a more peaceful status quo

e.g. of hwo Membership of IGOs often helps to build democracy within states, the EU

makes it a requirement for member states to meet certain democratic criteria. Türkiye has so far failed to be accepted into the EU partly due to weakness the EU has identifies in its democracy

how Democratic states offer a more stable base w which other states can trade?

they are more transparent + less prone to corruption, which is a factor that puts off potential foreign investors. Democratic states are more likely to be peaceful + stable, making them attractive to foreign investment

e.g. of how Many IGOs have been founded to make economic interdependence eraser?

IGOs such as the EU + ASEAN offer their members a framework within which they can trade w each other freely, based on a commonly agreed set of rules. 1 state can potentially open up more trade links more quickly w other states thru joining a bloc of nations, rather than acting alone

The Kantian Triangle=

 the belief that conflict can be avoided by promoting 3 key element, which each help to strengthen the others + contribute to a more peaceful + harmonious status quo

• What is liberal interventionism

• The idea that states should act regardless of national interest to defend human rights across the globe

• What is 'the international community'

• A group of countries w shared values + attitudes, usually those who join a coordinated response to a crisis, often the same as 'the west' - liberal democracies who seek to prevent abuses, distinct form IGOs etc

Why is the term 'international community' problematic?

• It's aspirational- does it actually exist or is it wishful thinking + it's vague- not a defined group + changes depending on issue + it's western-centric- based on western rather than international ideas

• Why do liberals sometimes advocate interventionism?

• To defend shared values- this will avoid the global system of human rights being weakened (has to be defended everywhere to be taken seriously)

• How do realists respond to liberal interventionism?

• States should only act in their own national interest + there are no 'global values' - states attitudes + values are unique + not always aligned, + states could use 'liberal interventionism' as a cover for own aims

How did tony Blair explain the need for liberal interventionism in his Chicago speech?

• He argued there was an international community w shared interests + values, + that national self-interest, + the international interest was increasingly 1 and the same

• Intervention should consider not only the threat from a state to others but also the threat from a state to it's own population, i.e. justifying humanitarian intervention to prevent human suffering- rejecting self-interest

What is responsibility to protect (R2P)

 a doctrine agreed by the UN in 2005 that granted legitimacy to intervening in the affairs of other states inorder to protect lives; following UN failures in Rwanda genocide 1994. this adopted the principle of liberal intervention 4 tests- intervention must be

according to the UN’s the principle of liberal intervention 4 tests- intervention must be: + the 5th one blair added 

• Solely to protect individuals

• Only as a last resort, following diplomacy/ negotiation

• Only if authorised by UNSC

• Proportionate + sensible/prudent/likely to succeed

• Blair added a 5th- national interest (i.e. neighbouring states take burden)

Key principle 4: likelihood of global governance

• Liberals disagree that global politics is naturally w/out order + instead believe that global governance is possible + desirable. They don't necessarily agree that a form of world govt, w full authority to force states to comply, is possible. But they point to the hunfe no. IGOs that have been created since the end of WW2 as evidence that a more informal type of governance can indeed work

Key principle 5: impact + growth of IGOs

• IGOs are a feature of the post WW2 global order, before 1945 very few IGOs existed apart from the league of nations, states worked together y agreed ad hoc treaties w a flexible, rather than fixed no. partner states

• Summarise changes to IGOs since 1945

• Huge growth after horrors of WW2, as states sought security + stability by working together in a more formal + sustained manner

• Most influential IGOs founded in post-war years (UN, IMF, NATO)

• Since then, have increased in number, scope + size

• Has also led to growth of regional organisations