Part 2 - Final Exam review

6.0 Psychology

Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936); discovered classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

generalization

responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting desired stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

B.F. Skinner

pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments.

Bandura

emphasized modeling or observational learning as a powerful source of development and behavior modification; Bobo doll experiment

fixed interval

type of reinforcement schedule where a reinforcer is given after a certain time has passed

fixed ratio

a schedule where reinforcement happens after a correct number of responses

variable interval

a schedule where reinforcement happens after a changing length of time.

variable ratio

schedule of reinforcement requiring a varying number of responses for reinforcement.

DSM-5

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

obsessions

persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted and inappropriate, causing marked distress/anxiety

compulsion

repetitive behaviors or mental acts that relieve anxiety in OCD

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

antisocial personality disorder

A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

negative symptom

a less outgoing symptom, such as flat affect or poverty of speech, displayed by some people with schizophrenia

delusion

a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

hallucination

false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus - can be any of the 5 senses

schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

Philip Zimbardo

social psychology; proved peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play-via the Stanford Prision Experiment

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans Nazis were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect (altruism)

altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others

bystander effect

The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help

prejudice

an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

just world hypothesis

the assumption that the world is fair and that therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

self-fulfilling prophesy

tendency to alter one's behaviors in order to fulfill others' expectations

proximity

nearness, closeness; factor in interpersonal attraction

diffusion of responsibility

theory for why bystander effect occurs - each individual bystander thinks someone else will get involved

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Piaget

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; part of sensorimotor stage

principle of conservation

The ability to recognize that the physical properties of an object remain the same despite superficial changes in the object's appearance.

concrete operations stage

7 to 12; child manipulates mental objects in mind; logical reasoning; simple math transformation

critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

secure attachment

Infants use the mother as a "home base" from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

insecure attachment

Characterized complete dependence on a caregiver and extreme reluctance to explore one's environment; the result of unresponsive parenting or overreactive

authoritarian parenting

A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting

a style of parenting marked by making demands on the child, being responsive, setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules

preconventional moral reasoning

According to Kohlberg, a level of moral development in which moral judgments are based on fear of punishment or desire for pleasure

conventional moral reasoning

Moral thinking based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values.

postconventional moral reasoning

According to Kohlberg, a level of moral development during which moral judgments are derived from a person's own moral standards