Bio unit trois

4 major macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
carbon containing

Almost all molecules are composed of ______ atoms bonded to eachother and other atoms of different elements

carbon

Organic compounds

carbon based molecules
containing hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon

Why is carbon special?

Very good in forming large and complex molecules
These molecules build structures and carry out functions required for life

carbon has ___ electrons in a valence shell which holds 8

4 - it shares electrons with other atoms in 4 covalent bonds

when carbon atoms form hydrogen bonds...

different shapes occur

Molecules shape

function

Carbon chains form the

backbone of most organic molecules

4 different ways in which carbon skeletons can vary

differ in length
be straight
branched
arranged in rings
vary in double bond placement
spatial arrangements

Isomers

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
the different shape of isomers add to the diversity of organic molecules and their properties

Hydrocarbon

molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
major components of petroleum
provide much of the worlds energy
rare in living organisms

carbon atom is most likely to form

covalent bonds

functional group

The first five important chemical groups
affect a molecule's function by chemically reacting
POLAR and hydrophilic so soluble in water

methyl group

6th group
nonpolar and reactive
affects molecular shape and function

Hydroxyl group

hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom
organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups are called alcohols

no carbon

Carboxyl group

Carbon double bonded to an oxygen atom and bonded to a hydroxyl group
The carboxyl group can act as an acid
contributes H+ to a solution becoming ionized
Compounds with this group are called carboxylic acids

Amino Group

Nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens
act as a base by picking up an H+ solution and becoming ionized
Organic compounds with an amino group are called amines. amino acids contain amino group and carboxyl group

no carbon

Phosphate group

Consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms
usually ionized
compounds with phosphate groups = organic phosphates (Involved in energy transfers)

no carbon

Methyl group

Carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms
methylated compound in the table affects the expression of genes

Macromolecules

Gigantic molecule (polysaccharides protein or nucleic acid)

formed by joining smaller molecules usually by dehydration

Polymer

long molecule consisting of many identical or similar monomers linked by covalent bonds
Make up macro molecules

Monomers

Polymers are made of monomers

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

each monomer contributes part of the water molecule released during the reaction.

reactions are the same regardless of the specific monomers and type of polymer produced

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction the breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water a process by which polymers and broken down and an essential part of digestion

bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule

Enzymes

A macromolecule usually a protein that serves as a catalyst changing the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

Diversity of Polymers

Key to diversity: arrangement in order of monomers
monomers are essentially universal
small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into large ones varying from species to species

Carbohydrates

range from small sugar molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

simple sugars
monomers of carbohydrates
simplest carbohydrate
generally have a formula of CH2 O

Glucose formula

C6H12O6

Two trade marks of a sugar

a number of hydroxyl groups (-OH)
carbonyl group C = O

What makes fructose sweeter than glucose?

they have the same formula C6H12O6
the arrangement of their atoms make them isomers
the shape of molecules are very important because minor differences give isomers vastly different properties

Shape of molecules

the shape of molecules are very important because minor differences give isomers vastly different properties

Carbon Skeletons

The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule, forms the backbone of any molecule.

carbon skeletons of glucose and fructose

6 carbons long
other monosaccharides may have 3-7 carbons

most common sugars are

pentose (5 carbon sugar) and hexose (6 carbon sugar)

-ose

sugars

-ase

enzymes

representation of sugars

ring shape

how is sugars ring shape formed

carbon 5 attached to oxygen bonds with carbon 1
carbon 6 extends above ring

fuel and sugar

monosaccarides (esp glucose) = main fuel molecules for cellular works

when glucose is broken down

cells release energy

dextrose

aqueous solution of glucose

two monosaccharides are linked to form a

disaccaride

disaccaride

sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides linked by dehydration reaction

sucrose

most common disaccharide
made of glucose monomer + fructose monomer

Polysaccharides are long chains of

sugar units

Polysaccaride

large macromolecule formed from monosaccharides
linked by dehydration
function as storage molecules or structural compounds

starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.
consists of long chains of glucose monomers
coils into helical shape
may be branched or unbranched
ex: potato wheat corn rice

Starch branks

starch granules serve as carbohydrate banks
plant cells can withdraw glucose for energy or building material

enzyme

humans + most animals have enzymes which can hydrolyze plat starch to glucose

glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

Cellulose

a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages

most abundant compound
molecules linked by hydrogen bonds
insoluble fiber cellulose that passes through digestive tract remains unchanged

Chitin

A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

Lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

nonpolar

what are lipids mainly contain

carbon and hydrogen atoms

what are lipids linked by
how do lipids react to water

nonpolar covalent bonds
making them hydrophobic

Types of lipids

fats, phospholipids, steroids

Fats

large lipid made from 2 smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
3 fatty acids to glycerol produces a fat
synonym for fat : triglyceride

glycerol

3 carbons
each bearing a hydroxyl group (OH)

Fatty Acid

consists of a carboxyl group -cOOH
and hydrocarbon chain
fats are hydrophobic because of C-H bond

Unsaturated fatty acid

fatty acid whos hydrocarbon chain contains one or more double bond
this double bond = one fewer hydrogen atom
which causes kinks in the carbon chain

saturated fatty acid

maximum number of hydrogen atoms
compact
solidifies at room temp
max number of hydrogen atoms
ex butter meat

Unsaturated

ex oils
liquids because not packed tightly
double bonds in hydrocarbon skeleton

Phospholipids

found in all cell membranes
similar to fats mais contain TWO fatty acid instead of three

what are phospholipds composed of?

glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group

phospholipids and water

Non polar Hydrophilic heads and polar hydrophobic tails

4 major macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
carbon containing

Almost all molecules are composed of ______ atoms bonded to eachother and other atoms of different elements

carbon

Organic compounds

carbon based molecules
containing hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon

Why is carbon special?

Very good in forming large and complex molecules
These molecules build structures and carry out functions required for life

carbon has ___ electrons in a valence shell which holds 8

4 - it shares electrons with other atoms in 4 covalent bonds

when carbon atoms form hydrogen bonds...

different shapes occur

Molecules shape

function

Carbon chains form the

backbone of most organic molecules

4 different ways in which carbon skeletons can vary

differ in length
be straight
branched
arranged in rings
vary in double bond placement
spatial arrangements

Isomers

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
the different shape of isomers add to the diversity of organic molecules and their properties

Hydrocarbon

molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
major components of petroleum
provide much of the worlds energy
rare in living organisms

carbon atom is most likely to form

covalent bonds

functional group

The first five important chemical groups
affect a molecule's function by chemically reacting
POLAR and hydrophilic so soluble in water

Hydroxyl group

hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom
organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups are called alcohols

no carbon

Carboxyl group

Carbon double bonded to an oxygen atom and bonded to a hydroxyl group
The carboxyl group can act as an acid
contributes H+ to a solution becoming ionized
Compounds with this group are called carboxylic acids
-COOH

Amino Group

Nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens
act as a base by picking up an H+ solution and becoming ionized
Organic compounds with an amino group are called amines. amino acids contain amino group and carboxyl group
-NH2
no carbon

Phosphate group

Consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms
usually ionized
compounds with phosphate groups = organic phosphates (Involved in energy transfers)

-OPO3 2-
no carbon

Macromolecules

Gigantic molecule (polysaccharides protein or nucleic acid)

formed by joining smaller molecules usually by dehydration

Polymer

long molecule consisting of many identical or similar monomers linked by covalent bonds
Make up macro molecules

Monomers

Polymers are made of monomers

dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

each monomer contributes part of the water molecule released during the reaction.

reactions are the same regardless of the specific monomers and type of polymer produced

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction the breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water a process by which polymers and broken down and an essential part of digestion

bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule

Enzymes

A macromolecule usually a protein that serves as a catalyst changing the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

Diversity of Polymers

Key to diversity: arrangement in order of monomers
monomers are essentially universal
small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into large ones varying from species to species

Carbohydrates

range from small sugar molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

simple sugars
monomers of carbohydrates
simplest carbohydrate
generally have a formula of CH2 O

Glucose formula

C6H12O6

Two trade marks of a sugar

a number of hydroxyl groups (-OH)
carbonyl group C = O

What makes fructose sweeter than glucose?

they have the same formula C6H12O6
the arrangement of their atoms make them isomers
the shape of molecules are very important because minor differences give isomers vastly different properties

Shape of molecules

the shape of molecules are very important because minor differences give isomers vastly different properties

Carbon Skeletons

The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule, forms the backbone of any molecule.

carbon skeletons of glucose and fructose

6 carbons long
other monosaccharides may have 3-7 carbons

most common sugars are

pentose (5 carbon sugar) and hexose (6 carbon sugar)

-ose

sugars