theories of child development

What is behaviorism?

A theory of development that focuses on observable actions and how stimuli cause specific responses.

Who is associated with behaviorism?

John B. Watson

What does the nature vs. nurture debate focus on?

The influence of genetics (nature) versus environment and experiences (nurture) on development.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural stimulus to elicit a response.

Provide an example of classical conditioning.

A child feels happy when seeing a colorful balloon because it is associated with birthday parties.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process where behaviors are modified through rewards and punishments.

What is positive reinforcement?

Increasing a behavior by providing a reward, such as praise for sharing toys.

What is negative reinforcement?

Encouraging a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, like cleaning a room to stop nagging.

What is punishment in the context of operant conditioning?

A consequence that reduces a behavior, such as giving a timeout for hitting a sibling.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement?

Punishment reduces a behavior, while negative reinforcement encourages a behavior by removing something unpleasant.

What is social learning theory?

A theory that emphasizes learning through observation and imitation of others.

Who developed social learning theory?

Albert Bandura

What is observational learning?

Learning that occurs by watching the behavior of others.

What is modeling in social learning theory?

The process of imitating the behavior of a model, such as a parent or teacher.

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning that occurs when an individual observes another being rewarded or punished for their behavior.

What is self-efficacy?

A person's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

What is reciprocal determinism?

The dynamic interplay between personal factors, behavior, and environmental influences.

What distinguishes social cognitive theory from social learning theory?

Social cognitive theory incorporates cognitive processes and emphasizes self-efficacy and outcome expectations.

What is an example of social cognitive theory in action?

A student gains confidence in public speaking after observing peers succeed and receive feedback.

What is a critique of social learning theory?

It may overemphasize environmental influences and downplay biological factors.

What is a limitation of social cognitive theory?

It can be overly broad and difficult to test empirically due to its many concepts.

How does social learning theory view children in the learning process?

Children are seen as active participants who shape their environment while seeking reinforcers.

What role does cognition play in social cognitive theory?

Cognition influences how individuals interpret observed behaviors and their subsequent actions.

What is imitation in the context of social learning?

Using someone else's behavior as a template for one's own behavior.

What is the emphasis of social learning theory?

It focuses on environmental influences on behavior and learning through observation.

What is an example of children learning aggressive behaviors?

Children may learn aggressive behaviors by watching violent actions in media, as shown in Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment.

What are outcome expectations?

Beliefs about the consequences of actions that influence decisions to engage in behaviors.

What does SCT primarily focus on?

Cognitive factors and social influences, potentially overlooking biological factors and unconscious processes.

Who proposed the Psychosexual theory?

Sigmund Freud

What is the main idea of Freud's Psychosexual theory?

Personality develops through a series of childhood stages focused on the pleasure-seeking energy of the id.

What are the three parts of Freud's model of the human psyche?

Id, Ego, and Superego

What does the Id represent in Freud's theory?

The primitive and instinctive component of personality that operates on the pleasure principle.

What is the role of the Ego in Freud's model?

The rational part that mediates between the id and external reality, operating on the reality principle.

What does the Superego represent?

The moral component of the psyche that internalizes societal norms and values learned from parents.

What are the five stages of psychosexual development according to Freud?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stages.

What can happen if a child becomes fixated at any stage of psychosexual development?

It can influence their personality and behavior as an adult.

What is the key idea behind Freud's theory of fixation?

If a child experiences too much or too little gratification in any stage, they may become fixated.

What is Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development focused on?

Human development across the lifespan through eight stages centered on social or emotional conflicts.

How many stages are in Erikson's theory, and what do they emphasize?

Eight stages that emphasize social relationships and emotional growth rather than sexual instincts.

What is the first stage of Erikson's psychosocial development?

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year), where infants learn to trust caregivers.

What is the successful outcome of the Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt stage?

Confidence and self-sufficiency.

What does the Initiative vs. Guilt stage involve?

Children asserting control and power over their environment, leading to leadership and initiative.

How does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's theory?

Erikson emphasizes social relationships and emotional growth rather than sexual or aggressive instincts.

What is the significance of resolving conflicts in Erikson's stages?

Successfully resolving conflicts builds a healthy personality and strong sense of self.

What is a critique of Freud's Psychosexual theory?

It relied on data from mostly women with emotional challenges and emphasized basic instincts over social relationships.

What does the term 'primary process thinking' refer to in Freud's theory?

Illogical, fantasy-driven thinking used by the id that seeks pleasure and avoids pain.

What is the 'reality principle' in the context of the Ego?

The principle that the ego satisfies the id's desires realistically and socially appropriately.

What role does the Superego play in moral development?

It suppresses unacceptable id urges and guides the ego morally, punishing with guilt or rewarding with pride.

What is an example of id behavior?

Feeling intense hunger and seeking food immediately, regardless of social appropriateness.

What is an example of ego behavior?

Feeling hungry during a meeting but waiting until a break to eat.

What is an example of superego behavior?

Feeling hungry and considering stealing food, but the superego reminds you it's wrong.

What does Erikson's stage of Initiative vs. Guilt encourage in children?

It encourages children to take initiative and assert control over their environment.

What is the outcome of successfully completing the Trust vs. Mistrust stage?

A sense of security and trust in the world.

What is the impact of unresolved conflicts in Erikson's stages?

They can create difficulties in future stages of development.

What is the successful outcome of the trust vs. mistrust stage in Erikson's theory?

A sense of security and trust, exemplified by a baby who receives consistent love and care.

What is the focus of the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage (1-3 years) in Erikson's theory?

Children develop personal control and independence, leading to confidence and self-sufficiency.

What successful outcome is associated with the initiative vs. guilt stage (3-6 years) in Erikson's theory?

Leadership, initiative, and the ability to plan activities, as seen in a child organizing a game.

What is the primary challenge faced during the industry vs. inferiority stage (6-12 years) in Erikson's theory?

Children face new social and academic demands, leading to competence and self-confidence.

What successful outcome is achieved in the identity vs. role confusion stage (12-18 years) in Erikson's theory?

Development of a strong personal identity and direction, including choosing values and peer groups.

What is the focus of the intimacy vs. isolation stage in Erikson's theory?

Young adults form intimate, loving relationships, leading to the ability to form close bonds.

What successful outcome is associated with the generativity vs. stagnation stage in Erikson's theory?

A sense of purpose and productivity through contributing to society or nurturing the next generation.

What is the outcome of the integrity vs. despair stage in Erikson's theory?

A sense of fulfillment and wisdom, reflecting on life accomplishments.

What is desensitization in the context of children's fears?

Gradually exposing children to their fears while engaging in incompatible behaviors.

What does operant conditioning involve in guiding children's behavior?

Reinforcing desirable behaviors to encourage their repetition.

What is participant modeling in addressing children's fears?

Children observe models engaging in feared behaviors and then imitate them.

What is a key point of Erikson's psychosocial development theory?

Development is lifelong, with each stage involving a psychosocial conflict related to social relationships.

How does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's in terms of focus?

Erikson emphasizes social and cultural factors across the lifespan, while Freud focuses on early childhood and unconscious drives.

What are the stages of development according to Freud?

Five psychosexual stages primarily focused on childhood and sexual instincts.

What are the stages of development according to Erikson?

Eight psychosocial stages, each with a key challenge or conflict to resolve.

What is the theoretical approach of Freud's theory?

Psychoanalytic, focusing on internal conflicts and unconscious desires.

What is the theoretical approach of Erikson's theory?

Psychosocial, emphasizing social relationships and identity.

What is the significance of early positive experiences according to Erikson?

They help children develop well later in life.

What is the main idea behind Piaget's cognitive development theory?

Children actively construct knowledge through experiences, moving through stages of cognitive development.

What is a schema in Piaget's theory?

Mental structures used to organize and interpret information.

What is adaptation in the context of cognitive development?

Adjusting to new experiences through assimilation and accommodation.

What is assimilation in Piaget's theory?

Incorporating new information into existing schemas.

What is accommodation in Piaget's theory?

Changing existing schemas to fit new information.

What is equilibrium in Piaget's cognitive development?

A state of cognitive balance when new information fits existing schemas.

What is the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory?

A stage (0-2 years) where infants learn through senses and actions, key development is object permanence.

What characterizes the preoperational stage in Piaget's theory?

Children (2-7 years) develop symbolic thinking but struggle with egocentrism and conservation.

What is the concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory?

A stage (7-11 years) where thinking becomes logical and organized, focusing on concrete objects.

What defines the formal operational stage in Piaget's theory?

A stage (12+ years) where abstract and hypothetical thinking develops.

What can individuals reason about according to cognitive development theories?

Possibilities, ethics, scientific problems, and future outcomes.

What is a key contribution of stage-based models in education?

They guide age-appropriate learning activities.

What does scaffolding in education refer to?

Providing temporary support to students to help them reach the next level of understanding.

What is a critique of Piaget's theory regarding children's abilities?

It underestimates children's abilities, as some skills develop earlier than proposed.

What is the Information Processing Theory?

A theory that compares the human mind to a computer, focusing on how people encode, store, retrieve, and process information.

What are the three key processes in Information Processing Theory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is chunking in the context of education?

Breaking information into smaller, manageable units to enhance learning.

What does Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory emphasize?

Cognitive development is shaped by social interactions and cultural experiences.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

The difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help, where learning is most effective.

What role do cultural tools play in Vygotsky's theory?

They aid thinking and learning, with language being the most crucial tool.

What is internalization in Vygotsky's theory?

The process through which social guidance evolves into internal mental activities.

What is a limitation of the Information Processing Theory?

It oversimplifies cognition by treating the brain like a computer and neglects emotional and social factors.

How does Vygotsky view the role of social interaction in learning?

Children learn best through interaction with more knowledgeable others.

What does Piaget's theory emphasize in terms of learning?

Active learning and biological maturation through distinct stages of cognitive development.

What is the focus of the biological perspective on development?

It explains development as a function of biology, including physical development and innate mechanisms.

What is an example of scaffolding in practice?

A teacher helping a student solve a complex math problem step by step.

What does the term 'cultural bias' refer to in the context of Piaget's theory?

The theory may not account for differences in cognitive development across different cultural contexts.

What is the significance of attention in Information Processing Theory?

It involves focusing on important information while ignoring distractions.