NRSC 2249 - Memory

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Neuroscience

65 Terms

1

Hebbian synapse

  • mechanism of learning and memory

  • potentiation: if presynaptic cell consistently drives postsynaptic, strengthened

  • depression: if presynaptic cell fails to drive postsynaptic, weakened

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2

forgetting function

  • illustrates how we forget info over time without reinforcing

  • nonlinear: rapidly at first, then levels off

  • repetition improves

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3

Bliss & Lomo

  • first demonstration of experience-dependent plasticity proposed by Hebb

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4

LTP

  • long-term potentiation

  • persistent strengthening of synapses

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5

NMDA glutamate receptor

  • important for early stages of LTP

  • activated by glutamate from presynaptic cells

  • voltage-dependent; normally blocked by a magnesium ion

    • when repeatedly depolarized, magnesium ion leaves

    • allows calcium into cell, activating secondary-messenger systems

    • synaptic strengthening

  • long-term depression occurs with no response of the post-synaptic cell to repeated input

  • coincidence detector

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6

neurogenesis

  • thousands of new neurons formed in hippocampus every day

  • younger neurons → greater plasticity

  • new cells → framework for establishing connection among existing

  • in hippocampus → important for storing information

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7

dendritic spines

  • potential structural basis for long-term info storage

  • grow and change in hours in young

    • less plastic and more stable in adults

  • may be important for memory storage

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8

stages of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

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9

encoding

  • first stage of memory

  • information transformed into storable format

    • acquisition and consolidation

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10

acquisition

stimuli are captured and processed in short-term memory

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11

consolidation

memory is stabilized into long-term memory

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12

storage

  • second stage of memory

  • preservation of info in memory

    • categorized into different types

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13

retrieval

  • third (final) stage of memory

  • process of accessing stored memory

  • influenced by:

    • strength of memory

    • context during encoding and retrieval

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14

types of memory

  • sensory

  • short-term and working

  • long-term nondeclarative

  • long-term declarative

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15

sensory memory

  • brief, immediate storage of sensory inputs

  • characteristics:

    • milliseconds to seconds

    • high capacity

    • no conscious awareness

    • lost through decay

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16

short-term/working memory

  • temporary storage of information undergoing active manipulation/rehearsal

  • characteristics:

    • seconds to minutes

    • limited capacity (7 ± 2 items)

    • conscious awareness

    • lost through interference and decay

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17

characteristics of long-term nondeclarative memory

  • minutes to years

  • high capacity

  • no conscious awareness

  • lost through interference

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18

characteristics of long-term declarative memory

  • minutes to years

  • high capacity

  • conscious awareness

  • lost through interference

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19

list learning task (serial position task)

  • task: listen to a list of words and report back as many as you remember

  • primacy and recently effects

  • manipulate learning and retrieval variables

    • # of trials, rate of presentation, length of delay, etc.

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20

primacy effect

  • people tend to remember items at the beginning of a list

  • long-term memory

  • serial position task

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21

recency effect

  • people tend to remember items at the end of a list

  • short-term memory

  • serial position task

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22

disrupting recency effect

  • length of delay affects short-term memory

  • distraction after end of list eliminates recency effect

  • disrupts ability to hold final items in short-term memory

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23

disrupting primacy effect

  • speeding up rate of word presentation reduces primacy effect

  • less time to encode into long-term memory

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24

visual report task

  • presented with a mix of letters very briefly

  • can usually report 4-5 accurately

  • partial report:

    • immediately after removal, tone is played to indicate row

    • usually can report 3-4 correctly from a single line

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25

modal model (Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store model)

  • discrete stages of memory with different characteristics

  • serial progression of information through memory stages

  • storage

    • attention: sensory → short-term

    • rehearsal/encoding: short-term → long-term

  • retrieval

    • control processes: long-term → short-term

      • retrieval/recognition cues

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26

patient KF

  • damage to left parisylvian cortex (parietal lobe)

  • short-term memory impairments

    • difficulty recalling information/details that he had just heard

    • retained ability to form long-term memories

  • challenge to strict serial hierarchy

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27

patient EE

  • tumor in left angular gyrus and inferior parietal

  • short-term memory impairments

    • poor STM for abstract verbal and transposing numbers

      • normal calculating/other number processing

    • normal visuospatial STM and non-verbal long term

    • strong primacy effect, no recency effect

  • STM not a necessary gateway to LTM

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28

working memory

  • expands on concept of short-term memory

    • content from recent sensory inputs

    • retrieval from long-term memory

    • conscious recall of recent events

  • maintenance/manipulation

    • maintain information through rehearsal

    • manipulation by central executive

  • popularized by Baddley & Hitch model

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29

Baddley & Hitch model

  • model of working memory

  • PFC, ACC, parietal lobe, Broca/Wernicke, occipital lobe

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30

PFC (Baddley & Hitch)

  • central executive

  • executive control tasks:

    • integrating info for decision-making

    • maintaining/manipulating stored info

    • high cognitive load tasks

    • updating info

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31

ACC (Baddley & Hitch)

  • attention controller

  • evaluates need for adjustments and adaptations based on task demands

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32

Broca/Wernicke (Baddley & Hitch)

  • phonological loop

  • left hemisphere: verbal and acoustic information

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33

parietal cortex (Baddley & Hitch)

  • episodic buffer

  • processing “workspace” for sensory and perceptual

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34

occipital lobe (Baddley & Hitch)

  • visuospatial sketchpad

  • right hemisphere: visual and spatial information

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35

delayed match-to-sample task

  • presented with a stimulus (good/poor), delay, asked to choose the matching stimuli

    • requires holding information in working memory

    • reflects preferred stimulus of neuron

  • neurons in IT cortex exhibit elevated delay activity even in a sense of stimulus

    • reflects WM for object attributes

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36

disrupting working memory

  • adding distractions during delay period

  • accuracy decreases with # of intervening distractors

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37

working memory - parietal cortex

  • delay activity for stimulus location

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38

working memory - PFC

  • reflects memory for object attributes and location

    • ventrolateral: patterns/object selectivity

    • dorsolateral: spatial selectivity

  • not attenuated by intervening stimuli: keeps track of behavioral goals

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39

nondeclarative memory: procedural

  • learning/remembering skills and habits

    • automatic over time

    • often motor skills

  • not necessarily consciously available

  • cerebellum, basal ganglia, motor cortex

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40

nondeclarative memory: perceptual

  • learning/remembering perceptual information

    • no conscious awareness or intention

    • often repeated exposure to stimuli (shapes/patterns/sounds)

  • influences actions and performance in perceptual skills

    • priming, perceptual learning, sensory adaptation

  • sensory cortex, occipital lobe

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41

nondeclarative memory: classical conditioning

  • type of implicit long-term memory

  • learning and remembering associations between stimuli and responses

    • no conscious awareness or intention

  • conditioned and unconditioned responses, reflexive actions

  • amygdala, cerebellum

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42

nondeclarative memory: operant conditioning

  • learning driven by outcomes of actions (reward/punishment)

  • linking specific behaviors with outcomes (BF Skinner)

  • basal ganglia, associated structures

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43

nondeclarative memory: habituation

  • responses to a stimulus decrease with repeated exposure

    • ignore repetitive, non-harmful stimuli

  • CNS changes, not peripheral adaptation (muscle fatigue)

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44

declarative memory: semantic

  • type of explicit memory that stores facts and concepts

  • consciously accessible, deliberate recall

  • hierarchically organized

    • general knowledge → specific information

    • lacks details about where fact was learned

  • medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)

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45

declarative memory: episodic

  • type of explicit memory that stores autobiographical events or experiences

  • consciously accessible, subjective experience

  • chronologically organized

  • medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)

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46

amnesia

  • substantial memory deficits

  • injury/trauma to the brain or neurodegenerative diseases

  • may regain over time or be permanent

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47

anterograde amnesia

  • inability to form new memories

  • most amnesia is this type

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48

retrograde amnesia

  • inability to remember events before a specific point in time

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49

Ribot’s law

  • principle in neuropsychology

  • in cases of retrograde amnesia, memories are lost in reverse chronological order

    • most recent likely to be lost, older likely to be preserved

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50

patient HM

  • bilateral resection of MTL and hippocampus to treat epilepsy

  • anterograde amnesia

    • inability to form new LTM

    • access to old memories, partial loss of recent memories

  • nondeclarative memory:

    • could learn and improve, but no memory of having done the task before

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51

patient KC

  • damage to multiple brain regions, including MTL

  • episodic amnesia (retrograde/anterograde):

    • semantic (facts) memory intact, slow acquisition

    • only very early episodic memory

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52

patient Clive Wearing

  • extensive damage to hippocampus and surrounding

  • anterograde/retrograde amnesia

    • only sporadic recollection of past life

    • could play piano and conduct, but not remember having done so

  • near-continuous state of reawakening to the present moment

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53

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

  • thiamin deficiency due to poor nutrition, chronic alcoholism

  • confusion, disorientation, confabulations, apathy

  • anterograde and retrograde amnesia

    • more severe than MTL or dorsomedial thalamus lesions

  • mammillary bodies, thalamus

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54

patient PZ

  • Korsakoff’s amnesia

  • wrote autobiography prior to amnesia - “ground truth”

  • early recollection more accurate than late (pre-amnesia)

    • clear temporal gradient (Ribot’s law)

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55

Alzheimer’s disease

  • progressive, irreversible neurological disorder, causes dementia

  • plaques and tangles in hippocampus leading to deter nation

  • stages of disease:

    • early: difficulty with recent events, conversations, names

    • advancing: recent and known individuals and places

  • disrupts connectivity between hippocampus and PFC

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56

chronic stress

  • damage to brain cells, reduced hippocampus size

    • dentaste gyrus and CA1 particularly affected due to high density of cortisol receptors

  • impaired memory formation, forgetfulness, learning difficulties

  • inhibited neurogenesis, dendritic hypotrophy

  • interference with sleep quality

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57

Patient S

  • could not forget: could repeat hundreds of words/numbers

  • inflexible memory

    • trouble discerning importance, extracting gist, following plot, understanding poetry/art/metaphors

    • difficulty with faces (changing)

  • unable to generalize

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58

Patient MS

  • right occipital lobe removed due to epilepsy

  • preserved explicit memory: intact recall and recognition

  • impaired implicit memory: impaired visual priming

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59

declarative theory (hippocampus)

  • theory of hippocampal function

  • crucial for all forms of consciously recalled memory

    • episodic, semantic

    • recollection, familiarity

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60

multiple-trace theory (hippocampus)

  • theory of hippocampal function

  • each time a memory is recalled, hippocampus creates a new trace or representation of the memory

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61

dual-process theory (hippocampus)

  • theory of hippocampal function

  • retrieval contingent on two independent processes:

    • familiarity (oldness)

    • recollection (events and context)

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62

relational theory (hippocampus)

  • theory of hippocampal function

  • representations of associations linking elements of experience or knowledge to construct cohesive memory

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63

cognitive map theory (hippocampus)

  • theory of hippocampal function

  • constructs/maintains cognitive maps

    • spatial representation of environment

    • navigation and spatial memory

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64

consolidation

  • process of stabilizing memories

    • days to weeks to years

  • MTL essential for early consolidation and storage of episodic/semantic

  • over time, memories re-encoded in cortex (immune to hippocampal damage)

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65

neural basis of consolidation

  • representations of an event throughout cortex → MTL, bound by hippocampus

    • retrieval of info slowly transferred to neocortex

  • consolidation after repeated reactivación of the memory to create direct connections within cortex

    • no longer require hippocampus

  • long-term memories require many iterations of activation, consolidation, reactivation, reconsolidation

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