Sociology Exam 2

Stratification

Structured inequality that exists within societies where people and groups are ranked hierarchically based on factors like class, race, gender, wealth.

middle-income households:

a household with with income that is two-thirds to double the U.S . median household income, after incomes have been adjusted for household size

income

money received by a person for work, from transfers (gifts, inheritances, or government assistance), or from returns on investments.

Lower-income household

a household with incomes less than two-thirds of the median.

Upper-Income Households

a household with incomes that are more than double the median.

What has happen to the income level since 1971 in America?

The share of Americans in the middle class has become smaller without fail since 1971. Approximately from 61% to 51%. (2023)

Wealth

a family's or individual's net worth (total assets minus total debts)

What has happened to America's wealth over the past few decades?

There has been increase of unequal wealth distribution with the top 1-10% having around two-thirds of the nation's wealth.

Standards of equality (opportunity)

everyone has equal chance to achieve wealth, social prestige, and power (Eg. American dream, Monopoly)

Standards of equality (Condition)

everyone should have an equal starting point (affirmative action)

How can the standards of equality regarding conditions be improved in the American system?

The government should be more involved in boosting education, skills and human capital. This can be done by making housing more affordable.

Standards of equality (outcome)

everyone should end up in the same position (Utopian ---society)

estate

a politically-based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility. (Feudal Europe: peasant----serf---nobles)

caste

a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility (Born into social class can not move up or down)

Slavery

a form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property (1800s--America)

Modern slavery

situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, deception, or abuses of power. It takes many forms and is known by many names — forced labor, forced marriage, debt bondage, sexual exploitation, human trafficking, slavery-like practices, forced or servile marriage, and the sale and exploitation of children.

New slavery

People become completely disposable tools for making money by focusing on big profits and seeing people as cheap lives. (Kevin Bales)

What are differences between old slavery and new slavery?

In old slavery: Legal ownership asserted, High purchase cost, Low profits, Shortage of potential slaves, Long term relationships, Slaves maintained, Ethnic differences important, Emphasized COST as investment

In new slavery: Legal ownership avoided, Very low purchase cost, Very high profits, Glut of potential slaves, Short term relationships, Slaves disposable, Ethnic differences not important

education

key mechanism of social stratification, serving both as pathway to upward mobility and as a system that reinforces existing class, racial, gender inequalities, through differential access to resources, opportunities and credentials

How does education impact society?

It is an important tool to move a person's status (working class--->middle class). Wages increase after obtaining a Bachelor's or higher versus a High school diploma but it varies on the major.

Status hierarchy system

a system of stratification based on social prestige. (physician----human resource manager----dishwasher)

class system

an economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility

Karl Marx

Capitalism and class : Money and natural resources (owners, bourgeois)

Erik Olin Wright

developed the concept of contradictory class locations, which is the idea that people can occupy locations in the class structure that fall between the two "pure" classes defined by Marx.

Max Weber

class, status---chances and opportunities (Lawyers)

social mobility

movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society

Intergenerational

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another (Relative to parents: white collar to tech bro)

Intragenerational

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within a course of a personal career

What are some predictors of social mobility?

Segregation, Income inequality, Quality of public schools, Strength of social networks, Family structure

What are the average per capita emissions by world region?

Carbon inequalities between regions are large and persistent. With North America approx. 20% versus Sub-saharan approx. 1.6%

How can you measure global inequality?

Look at nations economies and life expectancies. You will notice some parts benefit over others. Additionally, health has improved faster than wealth (25 yrs old to 75) because advancements are shared throughout and hard to influence economy.

What is the human development index? (HDI)

a statistical measure used to rank countries based on their level of human development, taking into account factors like life expectancy, education attainment, and per capita income, essentially providing a snapshot of a country's overall quality of life across these key dimension.

How unequal is world?

The world is marked by a very high level of income inequality and an extreme level of wealth inequality. Richest 10% control 76% of wealth.

unweighted international inequality

a measurement of income disparity between countries where each country is considered equally, regardless of its population size, meaning the income per capita of each nation is compared directly without weighting the data based on population figures

Population weighted international inequality

a measure of global income inequality where each country's income level is weighted by its population size, meaning that the income disparity between countries with larger populations has a greater impact on the overall inequality calculation

true world income distribution

showing how income is spread among the world's population when considering the relative cost of living in each country;

Modernization Theory

Emphasizes internal factors, uniform evolutionary route that all countries follow, develop the necessary beliefs ,values, and norms for trade industrialization and rapid economic growth.

ISSUES: colonialism and exploitation of other people , Hard to replicate

Dependency theory

Emphasizes external factors, disadvantaged integration into world economy, relationships with developed countries viewed as barriers to development.

Eg. Loans with world bank vs BRICCS

Neoliberalism

Belief that free market forces, achieved by minimizes government restrictions on business will provide the greatest economic benefit on the widest range of people;

Liberalization, privatization( sell to investors), austerity

How can geography proposed by Jeff cause inequality?

High transportation costs (environment and context)---causes places to have bad infrastructure which essentially means they are landlocked and trading becomes difficult. Additionally the , prevalence of disease (malaria) causes low productivity and the health care system is difficult to access resulting in wasting of sources. Also with low agricultural productivity soils lose their nutrients faster this makes it harder to yield per acre.

Developmental traps (collier)

These make it harder for countries to move forward.

-Conflicts: wars and animosity

-Natural resources: Can be institutions and whether or not they are making the right decisions

-Landlocked with Bad neighbors: Makes it hard to sell things and you cannot control neighbors

-Bad governance: Includes corruption and infrastructure not being built

What are institutions and why do they matter?

Institutions are rules influencing how the economy works and the incentives that motivate people. They can be divided into inclusive institutions(value democracy) and extractive institutions (elites in charge and exploit general population)

Sex

perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish males from females (XX or XY chromosome)

Who does sex leave out?

Intersex individuals (1.7%) this shows that gender is on a spectrum.

Gender (role/position)

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as masculine, feminine, or other

Eg. Men and construction

cisgender

describes people whose gender corresponds to their birth sex

transgender

describes people whose gender identities does not correspond to their sex at birth

gender identity

how someone internally understands their gender regardless of their physical body

gender expression

how they outwardly show their gender identity, which may or may not align with societal expectations associated with the gender they were assigned at birth

gender dysphoria

when there is a conflict between a person's gender identity and their assigned sex, and this conflict causes significant distress

How are sociologists concerned with gender?

Sociologists are less concerned with biological differences of sex (eg. chromosomes) and more about how people enact and perceive those differences (eg. gender)

How do Americans see differences between men and women?

They differentiate between hobbies, expression of their feelings(women-emotional), physical abilities(men--stronger), etc. However awareness and changes have occurred over generations.

gender typing

women holding occupations of lower status and pay, like secretarial and retail positions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay like managerial and professional positions (Paralegals---81.2% Vs Lawyers ---42%)

glass ceiling

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder

Eg. Lisa is not promoted to manager but her male colleagues who entered later and less qualifications are

glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work, organization especially in feminized job

Eg. Men in nurses

How does gender at home play out?

Women spend much more time doing unpaid housework/ care work. Men and women specialize in different chores, women spend more time on child rearing responsibilities.

Second shift

the unpaid work of housekeeping and childcare that they face once they return home from their paid jobs

Functionalism(gender inequality)

gender differences, specially men's and women's specialization in different tasks, contribute to social stability and integration problems: tautological / status quo / change

Conflict (gender)

uneven distribution of power in society historically, men have had more access to resources(wealth, education, and political influence), which they have used to maintain their dominance over women

Interactionism

We constantly perform masculinity and femininity. Potential for change but tend to reaffirm and reproduce gender norms.

Intersectionality

concept that social identities like race, class, gender, ability status, and sexual orientation intersect and interact shaping unique experiences of advantage and disadvantage (eg. gender pay gap between Black women and white women differs)

graying

a term used to indicate that an increasing proportion of a society's population is older

What will happen in the next decades concerning aging in America?

Nearly a quarter of the U.S. population is projected to be over age 65 by 2060. By 2034, older adults are projected to outnumber children.

Practical challenges of aging

difficulties faced aging individuals due to the physical changes associated with growing older

(eg. cardiovascular disease, slow mobility)

Symbolic challenges of aging

social and psychological implications that arise from the aging process

(eg. fear of dependence)

Biological (aging)

-Changes in reproductive capacity, immune system response , and cardiovascular functioning

-Varies according to our genes, lifestyles, and luck

-Physical aging is merely age-linked and not age-caused

psychological (aging)

-How old one feels acts, and behaves

-Not necessarily equal to chronological age

-Most personality traits, self-concept, and self-esteem remain fairly stable from midlife onward

social (aging)

-Society shapes the meaning and experiences of aging

-expectations/assumptions of those around us about how we should behave, what are like, what we can do, and what we should be doing at different ages

-Too young or too old for certain roles and opportunities

ageism

Discrimination or prejudice based on a person's age.

elder abuse

an intentional act or failure to act that causes or creates a risk of harm to an older adult. An older adult is someone age 60 or older. The abuse often occurs at the hands of a caregiver or a person the elder trusts.

physical abuse: elders

illness, injury, functional impairment, or death resulting from the intentional use of physical force

sexual abuse: elders

forced or unwanted sexual interaction

emotional or psychological: elders

verbal or non-verbal behaviors that inflict anguish, fear, or distress

Neglect: elders

failure to meet an older adult's basic needs

Financial: elders

illegal, unauthorized, or improper use of money, benefits, property or assets for the benefit of someone other than the older adult

How does age impact employment?

Employers may hesitate to hire them due to concerns about adaptability to new technologies, higher salary expectations, or potential retirement soon.

prejudice

Thoughts and feelings about social group (based on age, gender, etc) which lead to preconceived notions and judgements about the group

discrimination

Harmful or negative actions against individuals based on their age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, regardless of their individual merit

What does Merton argue about discrimination?

Discrimination construed as intentional behavior. Antipathy (negative feelings) toward or stereotypes (negative beliefs) about members of a status group.

What causes discrimination?

-Conflict: beneficiaries of systems of inequality protect their privileges by using the resources they control to exclude members of subordinate groups

-Cognition: automatic unconscious cognitive processes that distort our perceptions and treatment of others —--> Brain efficient (put in box) —fast

categorization

It places people into in-groups and out-groups. Exaggerate similarity and difference (clear differentiation)

Automatically prefer ingroup members to outgroup members

Discrimination through ingroup favoritism vs pervasive outgroup antipathy

stereotyping

Attribute traits we habitually associate with a group to individuals who belong to that group

Eg. old people drive slow

Confirmation bias

more likely to accept things that align with perceptions ; evidence that confirm beliefs and disregard that is not

Attribution bias

-How we expect others to perform affect the meaning we assign to their behavior

-When performance conforms to our expectations we attribute it to their stable, internal traits (ability)

-When it contradicts we attribute to transient external causes (task difficulty, luck)

-Expect members of socially preferred groups to succeed

macro-micro link

-Categorization, in-group preference, and stereotyping are cognitively efficient

-Over time members of preferred groups accumulate advantages and members of disparaged groups accumulate disadvantages

-Reproduce people who we know

- discrimination happens in favor of in-group

disengagement theory(aging)

functional for society to relieve older people of their traditional roles as it free up those position for younger people

Eg. people older pushed to traditional roles

Application: forced retirement policies that push older adults out of the workforce make room for younger employees

Activity theory (aging)

people who are busy and engaged leading fulfilling and productive lives can be functional for society

Application: remain in work and social roles as long as possible,volunteering in community

Continuity theory (aging)

older adults well being is enhanced when their activities consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities earlier in life

Application: former teacher tutoring at library

Conflict theory (aging)

Many problems of aging (eg. poverty, poor health, etc) are systematically produced by the routine operation of social institutions

Application: rates of poverty among older adults differ by race and gender, reflecting systems of stratification

life course theory (aging)

people play an active role in determining their physical and mental well-being but constrained by context

Application: boys and girls have had similar career aspirations in early 20th, but men receive more structural support vs woman

obesity

excessive body weight indicated by body mass index (BMI) over 30 . In America 40.3% are considered to be obese in the 20+ age demographic

What has happened with the obesity rates in America since 1960s?

Obesity rates have more than tripled

sociological imagination

Ability to understand the connection between individual experiences and larger social, historical, and structural forces

What does the obesity epidemic entail?

-Biological: Genetics, Physiology (hormonal)

-Social: Cultural norms---what is normative (portions), eating in cars (fast foods), Social network, access to gym, time and energy

-Economic: Food accessibility, Socioeconomic status, Food desserts —-not enough fresh options

technological : Food production (organic VS corn), Lifestyle changes (mobility)

health

state of complete, physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely absence of disease or infirmary

-Cultures differ what they consider health and what is appropriate treatment for ill health

What is the significance of the Hmong case?

Shows that cultures can see illness and health differently. In her case the family believed it was spiritual condition and not purely medical (epilepsy)

Medicalization

Process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such

Eg. pregnancy, childbirth, alcoholism, aging, mental health, obesity , etc.

Functionalist: sick role theory

Concept the social rights and obligations of a sick individual

Describes the patterns of behavior that a sick person adopts to minimize the disruptive impact of their illness of their illness on others

conditional(illness)

suffers from a temporary condition like a cold

unconditional (illness)

suffers from an incurable illness (cancer)