AP Psych Unit 1 Study Guide

What is the difference between nature and nurture?

Nature refers to a person's genetic makeup, while nurture refers to the environmental factors that influence a person's development.

What is heredity?

The passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another.

Identify three factors that would be considered part of nurture.

Friends, School, Family.

What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous system?

The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, sending orders to the body; the PNS consists of the different nerves that branch off from the brain and spine.

How do afferent (sensory) neurons differ from efferent (motor) neurons?

Afferent neurons send impulses to the brain from the body and outside stimuli, while efferent neurons send impulses from the brain to the rest of the body.

Which psychological perspectives lean towards the nature side of the debate?

Biological, Cognitive, Evolutionary.

Which psychological perspectives lean towards the nurture side of the debate?

Psychodynamic, Behaviorism, Sociocultural.

What is natural selection?

The process by which traits that are better suited to help a species survive get passed down to the next generation.

What is eugenics?

The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding for desirable traits and discouraging reproduction among those with undesirable traits.

What is the difference between epigenetics and brain plasticity?

Epigenetics studies how the environment and behavior affect genes, while brain plasticity refers to changes in the brain's structure on a cellular level in response to environmental factors.

What does the autonomic nervous system control?

Involuntary actions, such as breathing and digesting food.

What does the somatic nervous system control?

Voluntary movements in your skeletal muscles and five senses.

Identify the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Sympathetic division & parasympathetic division.

What are the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?

The sympathetic division mobilizes the body (increases heart rate, dilates eyes, increases breathing), while the parasympathetic division relaxes the body (slows heart rate, increases digestion, saves energy).

What is a glial cell?

A cell that provides support to the nervous system, providing neurons with nutrients; they are the most abundant cell in the nervous system.

The basic function unit of the nervous system:

Neurons

What is a reflex arc?

A neural pathway that controls an autonomic response to a stimulus without conscious thought.

What three neurons work together in the reflex arc?

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

What happens when you touch a hot surface with your hand?

Sensory neurons in your hand send a signal to the CNS, where interneurons relay it to motor neurons, causing your hand to pull away before you consciously react.

What is an action potential?

When a neuron fires an electrical impulse down the axon.

What must happen for an action potential to occur?

An outside stimulus must cause a neuron to cross a specific threshold (typically -55mV), leading to depolarization as positive ions enter the neuron.

What does permeability mean?

The ability for some ions to cross the membrane more easily than others.

What is depolarization?

When the strong negative charge of the inside of the cell changes from around -70mV to at least -55mV, triggering an action potential.

What is the all or nothing principle?

Once a neuron reaches the threshold level, it will fire an action potential at full strength; if the threshold is not met, no action potential occurs.

What is repolarization?

The process in which the neuron returns to its resting potential, with channels opening to let more positive ions outside the cell membrane.

What is the refractory period?

A time when the neuron cannot fire, waiting for repolarization to occur, preventing signals from being sent in both directions.

What is a resting neuron (resting potential)?

When there is more positive ions outside the membrane of the neuron, here the neuron is polarized and will not send a signal (-70mV)

What is a synapse?

A small pocket of space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the next neuron.

What is the difference between an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse?

Electrical synapses send messages quickly and immediately, while chemical synapses use neurotransmitters to deliver messages across a synaptic gap, which takes more time.

What is a neurotransmitter?

A chemical messenger sent by a neuron, categorized as excitatory or inhibitory.

What is the synaptic gap?

A narrow space between two neurons, specifically between the presynaptic terminal of one neuron and the postsynaptic terminal of the next neuron.

What is the difference between the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic terminal?

The presynaptic terminal contains neurotransmitters to be released, while the postsynaptic terminal receives the neurotransmitters.

What does reuptake mean?

When the sending neuron at the presynaptic terminal reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse.

How do excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters impact a neuron?

Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential, while inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease that likelihood.

What is hyperpolarization?

When the inside of a neuron becomes more negative, moving it farther away from its threshold for an action potential.

What is Multiple Sclerosis?

A neurological disorder where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting communication between the brain and the body.

What are the symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis?

Muscle weakness, fatigue, and coordination problems.

What is Myasthenia Gravis?

An autoimmune disorder that affects the connection between nerves and muscles due to antibodies blocking or destroying receptors for acetylcholine.

What are the symptoms of Myasthenia Gravis?

Muscle weakness and fatigue.

What is Acetylcholine?

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

What is Substance P?

A neurotransmitter that helps transmit pain signals from sensory nerves to the CNS.

What is Dopamine?

A neurotransmitter that helps with movement, learning, attention, and emotions; known as a natural drug due to its impact on feelings.

What is Serotonin?

A neurotransmitter that impacts hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

What are Endorphins?

Neurotransmitters that help with pain control.

What is Epinephrine?

The same chemical as adrenaline, it helps the body respond to high emotional situations by increasing blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness.

What is Norepinephrine?

A neurotransmitter that increases blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness, associated with the fight or flight response.

What is Glutamate?

A neurotransmitter involved with excitatory messages, helping with long-term memory and learning.

What is GABA?

A neurotransmitter that helps with sleep and movement, slowing down the nervous system.

What is adrenaline?

A hormone that helps with response to high emotional situations, supports memory formation, and is part of the body's fight and flight response.

What is lepotin?

A hormone that regulates energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

What is ghrelin?

Also known as the hunger hormone, it signals to the brain that you are hungry.

What is melatonin?

A hormone that helps promote sleep and regulates the body's circadian rhythm.

What is oxytocin?

Also known as the love hormone, it promotes feelings of affection and emotional bonding.

What is the difference between the nervous system and endocrine system?

The nervous system uses neurons for fast, localized messages, while the endocrine system uses glands to create slower, broader hormonal messages.

What is the difference between agonists and antagonists drugs?

Agonist drugs increase the effects of a neurotransmitter, while antagonist drugs minimize or stop those effects.

How do agonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse?

They bind to receptors for a neurotransmitter or block reuptake, increasing the neurotransmitter's availability.

How do antagonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse?

They block receptors on the postsynaptic neuron or block the release of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic axon terminal.

What is an example of an agonist substance?

Anti-anxiety medications like Xanax increase GABA, calming the person down.

What is an example of an antagonist substance?

Schizophrenia medication blocks dopamine receptors to reduce symptoms.

What is a psychoactive substance?

A substance that alters brain function, leading to changes in mood, perception, consciousness, or behavior.

What are stimulants?

Drugs that excite and promote neural activity, leading to increased energy and reduced appetite.

ex: caffeine, nicotine, or cocaine

What are depressants?

Drugs that reduce neural activity, resulting in drowsiness and muscle relaxation.

ex: alcohol or sleeping pills

What are hallucinogens?

Drugs that cause a person to sense things that are not present.

ex: marijuana, peyote, LSD

What are opioids?

Drugs that function as depressants and provide pain relief.

ex: morphine, heroin, oxycodone

What are the three main regions of the brain?

Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain.

What is the function of the spinal cord?

It connects the brain to the rest of the body.

What does the brain stem control?

Essential life functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Medulla

Controls breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Pons function

Works with cerebellum to coordinate movement and helps coordinate sleep.

Reticular Activating System

The part of the reticular formation that is specifically for arousal/alertness/sleep-wake cycles

What is the cerebellum responsible for?

Enabling smooth muscle movements and maintaining equilibrium.

Midbrain

Part of the brainstem that relays information for the visual and auditory systems, and has motor and sensory tracts

that pass through it. Also contains the reticular formation and RAS

Cerebrum

A general term to describe the brain, not including the brainstem and cerebellum

Cerebral cortex

A thin layer of gray matter that covers the entire brain

Corpus callosum

A tract of nerve fibers that runs longitudinally down the center of the brain and connects the two hemispheres

Frontal lobe

One of the four lobes of the brain, involved in higher level thinking and motor functions

Prefrontal cortex

Front part of the cerebral cortex where planning, emotional expression, & complex thought occur (location: frontal lobe)

Motor cortex

The part of the cortex that allows control of voluntary movement. (Located in the frontal lobe)

Motor homunculus

A visual representation that shows how much brain area is devoted to the movement of each body part, showing how complex the movements are

Broca's area

Responsible for controlling the muscles needed to speak. (Located in the Frontal lobe)

What is Broca's aphasia?

A language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area, resulting in difficulty producing speech.

Parietal lobe

One of the four lobes of the brain, involved in processing sensory stimuli

Somatosensory Cortex

Part of the cortex that processes touch sensations. (Located in the Parietal lobe)

Sensory homunculus

A visual representation that shows how much brain area is devoted to the sensations of each body part, showing how sensitive to stimuli they are

Temporal lobe

One of the four lobes of the brain, primarily processes auditory information, also is important in memory formation

Hippocampus

A structure that controls the autonomic functions of the body and works with the pituitary gland to control hormones

Amygdala

A structure that is important for emotion, threat/fear perception, and memory. Located in the Temporal lobe and part of the Limbic system)

Auditory Cortex

The part of the cortex that processes auditory information. (Located in the Temporal lobe)

Wernicke's Area

Responsible for the ability to comprehend speech and create meaningful speech. (Located in the Temporal Lobe)

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

A language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke's area, leading to loss of meaningful speech.

Occipital Lobe

One of the four main lobes, contains areas that process visual information

Limbic System

A group of brain structures that are involved in emotion. learning, memory, and some basic drives

What does the thalamus do?

Serves as a relay station for impulses from the body to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A structure that controls the autonomic functions of the body and works with the pituitary gland to control

hormones

Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of your brain. It connects the nervous system and endocrine system. Also helps regulate all other glands in the body, in response to the hypothalamus

What is brain lateralization?

The differing functions between the right and left hemispheres of the brain.

What is the left hemisphere of the brain generally better at?

Recognizing words, letters, interpreting language.

What is the right hemisphere of the brain generally better at?

Spatial concepts, facial recognition, discerning direction.

What happened to Phineas Gage?

He suffered a severe personality change after a rod shot through his head, damaging his limbic system and frontal lobe.

What happens when the corpus callosum is cut?

The right and left hemispheres can no longer communicate, but there is no loss of intelligence or personality change.