nutrition minerals

What is the primary location of sodium (Na+) in the body?

blood and extracellular fluid surrounding the cells

What are the major roles of sodium?

regulating blood volume and is directly linked to blood pressure, with a larger effect in individuals with hypertension

What is the concept of 'salt sensitivity'?

inter-individual variation in how one's blood pressure is affected by sodium intake

What is the primary food source of sodium?

77% of sodium comes from processed foods.

What is the Adequate Intake (AI) for sodium?

1500 mg/day

What is the Upper Limit (UL) for sodium?

2300 mg/day, which is equivalent to 1 teaspoon of salt

How much sodium do humans actually need per day?

180 mg

What is hyponatremia and how does it occur?

a condition of water overload that occurs when water input exceeds water output, leading to water retention. It is a reflection of hyposmolality.

What is the prevalence of sodium toxicity in the US?

95% of US adults exceed the UL for sodium

What are the potential consequences of sodium toxicity?

Increased risk of hypertension and high intakes can increase the loss of calcium

What is hypernatremia and how does it occur?

a condition of water depletion that occurs when water output exceeds water input. It is a reflection of hyperosmolality

What is the role of chloride (Cl-) in the body?

major electrolyte and anion, part of HCl, and participates in acid-base balance.

What are the food sources of chloride?

found in table salt (part of NaCl), processed foods, seaweed, tomatoes, olives, lettuce, celery, and rye. It is also present in salt substitutes

How common is chloride toxicity?

rare but can occur in cases of severe dehydration (hyperchloremia)

How often does chloride deficiency occur in healthy individuals?

rarely

What factors can cause chloride loss?

Prolonged diarrhea, vomiting, or diuretics

what are the symptoms of chloride deficiency?

shallow breathing, muscle weakness, muscle spasms, and twitching

How does potassium impact fluid balance and pH balance?

Helps maintain fluid balance and pH balance

What are the specific roles of potassium in the body?

maintaining regular heart beat, helping to lower high blood pressure, and causing the kidneys to excrete excess sodium

What can potassium interact with?

sodium to lower or raise blood pressure

What are some food sources of potassium?

potatoes with skin, dairy products such as yogurt, and leafy greens

What is hypokalemia?

condition characterized by too little potassium in the blood.

What are the potential risks associated with moderately low potassium intake?

Increased risk of hypertension, kidney stones, and loss of bone mass

What can cause potassium deficiency?

prolonged vomiting or diarrhea

What is hyperkalemia?

condition characterized by too much potassium in the blood

What factors can contribute to potassium toxicity?

can occur with supplementation or salt substitutes

Which individuals are at risk for potassium toxicity and should consume less than the RDA?

Those with impaired kidneys and individuals taking medications for heart disease or diuretics

Where is 99% of the body's calcium located?

skeleton

What are the major roles of calcium (Ca2+) in the body?

build strong bones and teeth, aids in muscle contraction, supports nerve transmission, and is involved in cell metabolism.

What are some food sources of calcium?

dairy products, leafy greens, broccoli, fortified juices, and fish with bones (e.g., sardines).

How is calcium bioavailability influenced by other food components?

Vitamin D and lactose improve calcium absorption, low protein intake reduces absorption, and oxalates and phytates in foods containing calcium reduce its bioavailability

What type of diet may lead to low calcium bioavailability from natural sources?

vegetarian or vegan diet

What is hypocalcemia?

condition characterized by blood calcium levels below normal

What are the potential consequences of calcium deficiency?

less dense, weakened, and brittle bones, as well as an increased risk of osteoporosis and bone fractures

What is hypercalcemia?

condition characterized by too much calcium in the blood

What can calcium toxicity potentially impair?

absorption of iron, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus

Where is the majority of phosphorus (PO4-3) found in the body?

bone tissue

What are the functions of phosphorus in the body?

formation of hydroxyapatite in bones and teeth, is part of phospholipids in cell membrane structure, helps in energy metabolism as part of ATP and creatine phosphate, acts as a buffer in acid-base balance, and is part of DNA and RNA in every cell

What are the food sources of phosphorus?

meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and cereals

What increases phosphorus bioavailability?

Vitamin D

What decreases phosphorus bioavailability?

phytate, magnesium, calcium, and aluminum

How common is phosphorus deficiency?

rare

What are the consequences of hypophosphatemia?

muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets, confusion, and death in extreme cases

For whom is phosphorus toxicity (hyperphosphatemia) an issue?

for those with kidney problems

What can result from a high intake of phosphorus with low calcium intake?

can decrease bone mass and lead to calcium deposits in soft tissue

What is the primary function of magnesium (Mg+2) in the body?

needed for metabolism, bone metabolism, cell membrane synthesis, synthesis of DNA, RNA, and body proteins, proper muscle and nerve function, and may help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes

How many enzymatic reactions in the body involve magnesium?

300

What are some food sources of magnesium?

nuts, brown rice, and spinach

What are potential side effects of consuming large amounts of magnesium supplements?

intestinal problems, such as diarrhea, cramps, and nausea

How does magnesium (Mg+2) relate to the risk of type 2 diabetes?

may help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes

What are the main roles of sulfate (SO4-2)?

part of proteins, thiamin, and biotin, and helps give proteins their 3D shape.

Are there established RDA or AI values for sulfate?

No

What are the food sources of sulfate?

protein-containing foods, such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, legumes, nuts, and dairy

Are there any known deficiency or toxicity symptoms for sulfate?

No

What are the two types of dietary iron?

heme (animal) and nonheme (plant)

What are the major roles of iron (Fe)?

participates in oxidation-reduction reactions, is a major component of hemoglobin and myoglobin, and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

What are the food sources of iron?

meat, spinach, and tofu

What factors influence the bioavailability of iron?

molecular form of the iron, iron status of the individual, and the types of food eaten at the same time

How does the bioavailability of heme iron compare to nonheme iron?

Heme iron is two to three times more bioavailable than nonheme iron

What substances can nonheme iron bind to, affecting its absorption?

can bind to oxalates (found in leafy vegetables) and polyphenols (found in tea and coffee), which can affect its absorption

How can nonheme iron absorption be enhanced?

by consuming vitamin C.

What is the most common nutrient deficiency worldwide?

Iron deficiency

What happens to hemoglobin levels during iron deficiency?

they decrease

How does iron deficiency affect oxygen delivery to tissues?

diminishes oxygen delivery to tissues due to decreased hemoglobin levels

How does copper deficiency relate to iron metabolism and anemia?

affects iron metabolism and may lead to anemia

Which groups are at risk for iron deficiency?

pregnant individuals, those who menstruate, preterm or low birth weight infants, older infants and toddlers, and individuals following a vegetarian or vegan diet

What is hemochromatosis?

genetic disorder in which individuals absorb too much dietary iron, which can cause iron overload

Why are individuals following a vegetarian or vegan diet at risk for iron deficiency?

low bioavailability of iron from natural sources, increasing the risk of iron deficiency

What are the major roles of copper (Cu)?

part of several metalloenzymes, needed for oxidation reactions, and helps reduce free radical damage. It is also a part of the enzyme that oxidizes iron to its ferric form

What are the food sources of copper?

oysters, crab, mushrooms, lentils, and nuts and seeds

What can copper deficiency lead to?

can lead to microcytic anemia, as it impairs iron metabolism

What is Menkes disease?

rare genetic disorder related to copper metabolism that affects copper transport. It can cause developmental problems, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and death

What is Wilson's disease?

genetic disorder that prevents the body from excreting copper through bile, leading to accumulation of copper, which can cause liver and brain damage

What are the major roles of zinc (Zn)?

helps wounds heal, is needed for DNA and RNA synthesis and gene expression, and supports immune health

What factors can reduce zinc absorption?

when high levels of nonheme iron or calcium are present, when phytates, oxalates, and diets high in fiber are consumed

How can consuming animal proteins affect zinc absorption?

can improve zinc absorption

What are the food sources of zinc?

oysters and meat

What groups are at risk for zinc deficiency?

Vegetarian or vegan individuals

What are the effects of zinc deficiency?

delayed growth in children and can interfere with copper absorption when consumed in excess

What are the functions of selenium (Se)?

component of antioxidant enzymes and regulates thyroid hormones

What are the consequences of selenium deficiency?

may trigger Keshan disease, which damages the heart, and cause possible changes in thyroid hormone levels

What is selenosis?

condition caused by selenium toxicity, leading to brittle nails and hair (which may fall out), stomach and intestinal discomfort, skin rash, garlicky breath, fatigue, and damage to the nervous system

What are the functions of fluoride (F)?

part of fluoroapatite, which strengthens teeth, and enhances bone formation

What are the sources of fluoride?

fluoridated water, tea, and seaweed

What is the consequence of fluoride deficiency?

increased susceptibility to dental caries

What is fluorosis?

condition caused by fluoride toxicity, which affects teeth and bones.

What is the function of chromium (Cr)?

improves insulin response in the body

What are the food sources of chromium?

whole grains, meat, fish, and poultry

What is the consequence of chromium deficiency?

increased blood glucose and fatty acid levels, though it is rare in the US

How can excess chromium affect iron absorption, transport, and utilization?

may reduce iron absorption, transport, and utilization

What is the role of iodine in the thyroid gland?

The thyroid gland traps iodide and uses it to make the hormone thyroxine (T4), which can be converted to triiodothyronine (T3)

What are the food sources of iodine?

fortified salt, seafood, and dairy products

What is a simple goiter?

enlarged thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency

What are goitrogens?

substances in food that reduce the use of iodine by the thyroid gland, resulting in goiter

How has mandatory salt iodization affected goiter incidence in the United States?

has significantly reduced the incidence of goiter in the United States

How does triiodothyronine (T3) impact the body?

regulates basal metabolic rate, production of body heat energy, and human growth

What are the functions of molybdenum (Mb)?

functions as a cofactor for a variety of metalloenzymes, is involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids, and participates in oxidation-reduction reactions.

What are the food sources of molybdenum?

legumes, grains, nuts, dairy products, and leafy green vegetables

Are there known deficiencies of molybdenum in healthy individuals?

not seen in healthy individuals

What toxicity effects have been observed in relation to molybdenum?

cause reproductive problems and kidney disorders in animals