Indigenous or Forest Societies

Drivers of Deforestation

Expansion of commercial agriculture and colonial views of forests as unproductive fueled deforestation in India

Crops Cultivated

Jute, Sugar, Wheat, Cotton and Indigo were grown to meet Europe’s growing demand for foodgrains and raw

Economic Motivation

Forests were cleared to increase state revenue by converting wilderness into cultivated land during colonial rule

Ecological and Social Impact

Extensive forest clearing caused long-term ecological damage and affected local communities adversely

Slash and Burn Agriculture

Slash the trees and burn the fields, then plant crops. This leaves plenty of nitrogen in the soil as a natural fertilizer for the crops. Finally, after harvesting the crops, they burn the fields again to allow the trees to grow, and move to a new area. 

What happened with the Bastar Tribes?

The British wanted timber for railway sleepers, shipbuilding, commercial crops, and revenue from their land. They passed the forest acts ( 1865, 1878, 1927), giving them total control. They declared forests as state property, ending traditional rights. They saw shifting culture as “destructive'“ and wanted to use scientific forestry. Plantation capitalism (teak, sal) replaced with natural forests. 

Bastar Tribes, Social Structure

Before

Clan based societies

Villages managed by: Elders, priests, headman, community assemblies called parganas, and Land belonged to the Earth; people were caretakers, not owners

Each village protected its own forest boundary; if someone used another village’s forest; they paid /Dand/Man fees

After

Forest Acts created “Reserved Forests”— locals banned entirely

Villages labelled “criminals” for raising cattle, collecting wood, hunting, and gathering fruit

Bribes demanded by forest guards

Women harassed for collecting firewood

Bastar Tribes, Belief System

Before

Worshipped: Earth Goddess, Spirits of rivers, hills, and forests

Forest rituals done before: clearing land, hunting, and harvesting

Sacred groves (sarnas) were protected, no one could cut trees there

After

Ritual hunting banned

Many sacred forest areas are destroyed

Missionaries converted some communities to Christianity

Bastar Tribes, Economic Practices

Before

1. Shifting Cultivation

• Called jhum / penda / bewar.

• Forest patch burned → ash fertilizer.

• Land left fallow for 10–20 years → natural regeneration.

• Sustainable, diverse cropping.

2. Gathering & Hunting

• Collected:

  • Mahua

  • Tendu leaves

  • Honey

  • Fruits, tubers

  • Herbs (medicine)

• Hunting only when needed; governed by taboos.

3. Barter System

• Exchanged forest goods with neighbouring villages.

• No formal currency needed.

4. Sustainable Use

• Used every part: leaves for plates, bamboo for tools, gourds for bottles.

• Forests managed collectively → biodiversity preserved.

After

1. Loss of Livelihood

• Shifting cultivation banned.

• Forced labour on:

  • Timber cutting

  • Forest road building

  • Plantation work

• Very low/no wages.

2. Plantation Forestry

• Natural diverse forests replaced by:

  • Sal plantations

  • Teak plantations

• Reduced access to:

  • Grazing land

  • Food resources

  • Medicinal plants

3. Market Control

• British regulated all forest trade.

• Community-based barter economy collapsed.

What happened with the Kalang and Javanese forest?

Dutch wanted teak for: Shipbuilding, Railways, and Export revenue. Enforced scientific forestry.Declared forest as state-owned. Introduced forced labour systems like Blandongdiensten. Replaced natural forests with plantations. Restricted travel, grazing, cutting wood, shifting cultivation. This disrupted ancient forest communities like the Kalangs.

Kalang and Javanese forest

Before

Kalangs: elite class of forest workers.

Highly valued by Javanese kings for: Skilled woodcutting, Managing teak forests, Palace construction

Lived in forest villages with shared labour and clan networks.

After

Kalangs forced to work under Dutch orders.

Their social prestige declined.

Villagers punished for: Using forests, Grazing, Transporting wood, and Entering forest roads

Kalang and Javanese Forest, Belief System

Before

• Nature is believed to be sacred.

• Forest spirits protected trees.

• Rituals performed before felling teak.

• Communal ceremonies celebrated harvest, rain, and forest life.

After

• Ritual forest practices discouraged/ignored.

• Dutch surveys replaced spiritual relationships with land.

• Communities forced into obedience through taxation.

Kalang and Javanese Forest, Economic Practices

Before

1. Shifting Cultivation

• Practised sustainably on hill slopes.

• Regeneration-based, long fallow periods.

2. Skilled Timber Work

• Selective felling, no large-scale destruction.

• Maintained natural forest diversity.

3. Barter System

• Traded:

  • Timber

  • Resin

  • Bamboo

  • Forest food

• Internal exchange systems, little cash use.

After

1. Forced Labour

• Blandongdiensten:

  • Forest villagers must supply free labour & buffaloes

  • Later replaced by tiny wages

• Shifting cultivation banned → food insecurity.

2. Plantation Forestry

• Replaced natural teak forests with:

  • Straight-row monocultures

• Damaged:

  • Soil quality

  • Biodiversity

  • Village access to forest food

3. Market Dependency

• Local barter systems collapsed.

• People became dependent on:

  • Colonial wages

  • Dutch-controlled markets

Overall Indigenous Society Before and After

Before Colonisation

• Clan-based societies.

• Spirit-worship.

• Sustainable livelihoods (shifting cultivation, gathering).

• Barter economies.

• Forest seen as sacred + shared.

After Colonisation

• Loss of land rights.

• Forced labour.

• Plantation monoculture.

• Bans on shifting cultivation & hunting.

• Environmental destruction.

• Rebellions: Bastar 1910, Samin Movement 1907.