Polk - Grant

James K. Polk

1845-1849 Democrat

Mexican American War

James K. Polk

1846-1848

As a result of the Texas annexation, the Mexican-American War was over the acquisition of California and the Mexico-Texas border motivated by Polk’s drive for Manifest Destiny. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, establishing the Rio Grande to the Nueces River as the U.S.-Mexican border; Mexico also recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas, and agreed to sell California and the rest of its territory north of the Rio Grande for $15 million plus the assumption of certain damage claims. This was Mexican Cession. This raised concern about slave states and the balance which led to the Wilmot Proviso and the Compromise of 1850 which. The acquisition of California also led to the Gold Rush.

Wilmot Proviso

James K. Polk

1846

As a result of the Mexican Cession, in 1846, Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposed that an appropriations bill be amended to forbid slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This prohibition appealed to many voters and lawmakers who wanted to preserve the land for white settlers and protect them from having to compete with enslaved labor. Both times, it was defeated in the Senate, where Southern congressmen reacted with strong opposition, denouncing it as an infringement on their rights and viewing it as a threat to the institution of slavery, often calling it "treason to the Constitution." This also led to the Compromise of 1850 in trying to settle the divide on the topic of slavery and the balance in the states.

Reaction of southern congressman effect

Wisconsin and Iowa admitted as free states

James K. Polk

As a result of the acquisition of Texas, Wisconsin and Iowa were admitted as free states. Their admission as free states was part of a broader sectional conflict between slave and free states, particularly highlighted by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. This shift contributed to the increasing polarization of the nation leading up to the Civil War with the tip of the balance through adding more free states. This addition of free states was majorly leading up to the new Missouri Compromise of 1850 which attempted to solve this issue.

Free Soil Party organized

James K. Polk

1848

The Free-Soil Party opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. In 1846 David Wilmot introduced to Congress the Wilmot Proviso. The Wilmot concept was a direct ideological antecedent to the Free-Soil Party. The Free-Soil Party nominated the former U.S. president Martin Van Buren to head its ticket. The party weakened the regular Democratic candidate in New York and contributed to the election of the Whig candidate Zachary Taylor. The party was well represented in several state legislatures and the House of Representatives. In 1854 the disorganized remnants of the party were absorbed into the newly formed Republican Party, which carried the Free-Soil idea of opposing the expansion of slavery one step further by condemning slavery as a moral evil as well. This new party would put Lincoln into office.

Discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in California

James K. Polk

1848

James Wilson Marshall found flakes of gold in the American River at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains near Coloma, California. At the time, Marshall was working to build a water-powered sawmill owned by John Sutter. Days after Marshall’s discovery at Sutter’s Mill, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, ending the Mexican-American War and leaving California in the hands of the United States with the Mexican Cession. At the time, the population of the territory consisted of mostly Californios and Natives, but that soon changed. Sutter had enslaved hundreds of Native Americans and used them as a free source of labor and makeshift militia to defend his territory and expand his empire. This resulted in the Gold Rush which led to the further murder, enslavement, and assimilation of indigenous peoples.

Seneca Falls Convention

James K. Polk

1848

The meeting launched the women’s suffrage movement, which more than seven decades later ensured women the right to vote with the 19th Amendment. The Seneca Falls Convention fought for the social, civil, and religious rights of women. The convention proceeded to discuss the 11 resolutions on women’s rights which was known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments. All passed unanimously except for the ninth resolution, which demanded the right to vote for women. Stanton and African American abolitionist Frederick Douglass gave impassioned speeches in its defense before it eventually passed. It resulted in the Women’s Rights Movement.

Zachary Taylor

1849-1850 Whig

Gold Rush

Zachary Taylor

1849

The California Gold Rush was sparked by the discovery of gold nuggets in Sutter’s Mill. Thousands of prospective gold miners traveled by sea or over land to San Francisco and the surrounding area; soon the White population increased dramatically while the ethnic population decreased due to murder, enslavement, and forced removal. It also had to do with the broader idea of manifest destiny and had a large part in the development of railroads with the San Diego-Texas railroad which people wanted to build as a southern transcontinental railroad. Majorly it led to the mass migration of Whites and removal of others.

Henry David Thoreau Civil Disobedience

Zachary Taylor

Henry David Thoreau argues that individuals have a moral obligation to disobey unjust laws and refuse to cooperate with a government that engages in immoral activities even if it means facing legal consequences, prioritizing one's conscience over the state's authority; he uses his own experience of being jailed for refusing to pay taxes as a protest against the Mexican-American War. His essay are deeply rooted in the Transcendentalist philosophy, which emphasizes individual intuition and the inherent goodness of humans. "Civil Disobedience" significantly inspired leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. who employed nonviolent civil disobedience tactics in their struggles for social change.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Zachary Taylor

1850

Clayton–Bulwer Treaty was designed to harmonize contending British and U.S. interests in Central America. Because of its equivocal language, it became one of the most discussed and difficult treaties in the history of Anglo-U.S. relations. It resulted from negotiations between Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British minister to Washington, and John M. Clayton, U.S. secretary of state. The treaty established joint control of a future canal across the Isthmus of Panama and pledged a neutral Central America. Disputes arose over Britain's interests and the interpretation of neutrality. As the canal remained unbuilt, U.S. pressure grew to abandon the treaty. This led to the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty in 1901, allowing the U.S. to construct and control the canal independently.

Nashville Convention

Zachary Taylor

1850

Nashville Convention was the two-session meeting of proslavery Southerners in the United States. Delegates from nine Southern states met in Nashville to form against the north. The convention ultimately adopted 28 resolutions defending slavery and the right of all Americans to migrate to the Western territories. In September the U.S. Congress enacted the Compromise of 1850, so the Nashville Convention reconvened for a second session. Although they rejected the Compromise of 1850 and called upon the South to secede, most Southerners were relieved to have the sectional strife seemingly resolved, and the second session of the Nashville Convention had little impact. Taylor threatened to hang them if they pursued secession which kept the US together but raised sectional tensions. This also led to the South Carolina secession.

Millard Fillmore

1850-1853 Whig

Compromise of 1850 (Ominous Bill)

Millard Fillmore

1850

The compromise aimed to balance interests by strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act, admitting California as a free state, resolving a boundary dispute in favor of New Mexico, and abolishing the slave trade in Washington, D.C. It also allowed residents of New Mexico and Utah to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty. While it temporarily preserved national unity with this solution to westward expansion, southern fears about slavery's future led to secession threats, though a Nashville Convention attracted little support, indicating most southerners still favored the Union, provided Congress protected slavery and supported pro slavery statehood. This also provided a major solution to the problem of westward expansion due to slavery.

California enters Union as free state

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

California's admission as a free state in 1850 followed the Gold Rush. California's rapid population growth prompted its request for statehood. The debate over whether California would enter the Union as a free or slave state heightened tensions between North and South. To maintain a delicate balance between free and slave states, the Compromise of 1850 allowed California to enter as a free state, while simultaneously enacting a stronger Fugitive Slave Act to appease southern interests. This decision angered many southerners and contributed to the ongoing sectional conflict, as it disrupted the balance of power in Congress and intensified the national debate over slavery.

New Mexico and Utah territories organized based on popular sovereignty

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The organization of the New Mexico and Utah territories under popular sovereignty allowed the residents of these territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery, rather than having Congress dictate the terms. This was intended to appease both pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions, reflecting the growing tension over the expansion of slavery in the West. While popular sovereignty aimed to reduce conflict, it ultimately intensified debates over slavery, leading to violent confrontations such as "Bleeding Kansas" and the Gadsden Purchase which allowed the New Mexico territory to be a confederate state and the addition of southern transcontinental railroad.

No Slave Trade in Washington D.C.

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C., was a measure reflecting a growing sentiment in the North against the practice of buying and selling enslaved people, even while slavery itself remained legal in the capital. By ending the slave trade, Congress aimed to reduce the visibility of slavery in the nation's capital and respond to anti-slavery pressures. However, this compromise did not eliminate slavery in D.C., which continued to exist, illustrating the complexities and contradictions of the era's efforts to address the issue of slavery while maintaining national unity. The decision further fueled sectional tensions as it was seen as a concession to Northern interests which deeply angered the south.

New Mexico/Texas border dispute in favor of New Mexico

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The New Mexico-Texas border dispute was a contentious issue resolved by the Compromise of 1850, which favored New Mexico. After the Mexican-American War, Texas claimed a significant portion of what is now New Mexico based on its original boundaries. However, the federal government sought to establish a clear boundary to maintain peace and stability. The compromise officially defined the border in favor of New Mexico, which helped to quell tensions between the two regions. In exchange for recognizing this boundary, Texas received financial compensation, and the resolution aimed to balance the interests of both southern and western states, reflecting the ongoing struggle over territory and the expansion of slavery in the West. This led to the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 which finalized the southwestern border and made New Mexico confederate territory which went to the debate over slavery.

Texas given $10 million to compensate for border dispute with New Mexico

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

Texas was awarded $10 million to resolve the border dispute with New Mexico. This compensation was necessary because Texas claimed territory extending far into what is now New Mexico, creating significant tensions. By defining the border in favor of New Mexico, the federal government aimed to stabilize relations and assert federal authority. The financial settlement helped alleviate Texas's debts and facilitated its acceptance of the new boundary, which was a crucial step in maintaining peace between the two regions and addressing the broader conflicts surrounding slavery and territorial expansion in the antebellum United States. This arrangement exemplified the compromises made during this period to preserve national unity.

Strict Fugitive Slave Law

Millard Fillmore

1850

Part of Compromise of 1850

The strict Fugitive Slave Law, mandated that escaped enslaved people be returned to their owners, even if they were found in free states, denying them the right to a jury trial. This law heightened federal enforcement measures, requiring citizens to assist in the capture of fugitives and imposing severe penalties on those who helped them escape. The law was intended to appease southern states and strengthen their claims to enslaved people, but it sparked outrage in the North, which resulted in the Personal Liberty Laws which allowed the north the right to not participate. This led to increased abolitionist sentiment and resistance, exemplified by activities such as the Underground Railroad. This strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law further deepened the sectional divide, laying the groundwork for the conflicts that would erupt in the Civil War.

Herman Melville Moby Dick

Millard Fillmore

The novel reflects the spirit of Manifest Destiny through Captain Ahab’s obsessive quest to conquer the elusive white whale. Additionally, the whaling industry, central to the story, was a significant part of the U.S. economy in the mid-1800s, particularly in New England. Melville’s critique of obsessive individualism, fate, and the consequences of unchecked ambition also mirrors the growing tensions in America during this period, making the novel an important lens through which to examine the cultural and philosophical undercurrents of the era. His novel offered a metaphor for the slavery question as to the fate of the union with the Captain’s obsessiveness.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Millard Fillmore

1852

Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin is a powerful anti-slavery novel that vividly portrays the brutal realities of slavery in the pre-Civil War South. The story follows the life of Uncle Tom, a dignified and devout Black slave, who is sold away from his family and faces cruelty under different masters. Through Tom’s story, Stowe highlights the inhumanity of slavery and the moral corruption it breeds, galvanizing Northern abolitionist sentiment and inflaming tensions between the North and South. The novel played a significant role in shaping public opinion, contributing to the growing abolitionist movement and intensifying the sectional divide that eventually led to the Civil War.

Cumberland Road completed

Millard Fillmore

1852

Cumberland Road was the first federally funded highway, stretching from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois. The road facilitated westward expansion by providing a reliable route for settlers, goods, and mail to travel from the eastern states to the Midwest. It helped integrate the national economy, promote trade, and encourage migration, contributing to the rise of American frontier settlements. The road was a key development in the larger context of the Transportation Revolution, which included canals, railroads, and improved roads. A notable one was the San Diego Railroad which would help establish a transcontinental rail route, this initiative was known as the inspire railroad, and promote trade and economic development in California.

Franklin Pierce

1853-1857 Democrat

Gadsden Purchase

Franklin Pierce

1853

The Gadsden Purchase was a treaty in which the United States acquired a small region of land from Mexico for $10 million, comprising parts of present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico. The purchase was negotiated by James Gadsden and was intended to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad route from Texas to San Diego. While the acquisition was relatively small in size, it had significant implications for the U.S. expansionist agenda, fulfilling the nation's desire for territorial consolidation following the Mexican-American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). The purchase also exacerbated tensions over slavery, as the new land became confederate territory which further amplified tensions between the north and south.

Ostend Manifesto

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Ostend Manifesto was a secret diplomatic document drafted by U.S. envoys in Europe, advocating for the acquisition of Cuba from Spain, by purchase or force, as part of an effort to expand American territory and spread slavery into new regions. The manifesto argued that if Spain refused to sell Cuba, the U.S. had the right to take it by military means, claiming it was a necessary action for the security and economic interests of the United States. The document was leaked to the public, causing a storm of controversy, particularly in the North, where it was seen as an attempt to expand slavery into new territories. This caused a mass of distrust between the people. The backlash contributed to the growing sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War, and the plan was ultimately abandoned, but it revealed the extent of pro-slavery Southern interests in expanding the nation's borders. This also marks the major end of the Spanish empire.

Henry David Thoreau Walden

Franklin Pierce

1854

Henry David Thoreau's Walden is a philosophical reflection on simple living and self-sufficiency, written during Thoreau's two-year experiment living in a small cabin near Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts. In the book, Thoreau explores themes of nature, individualism, and social critique, arguing that modern life, driven by materialism and unnecessary complexity, alienates people from their true selves and from nature. He advocates for a life of quiet contemplation, independence, and a rejection of consumerism, urging readers to live deliberately and to seek deeper meaning through a closer connection to the natural world. Walden became a foundational work for the American Transcendentalist movement, which emphasized intuition, self-reliance, and the spiritual connection between humans and nature, and it continues to influence discussions on environmentalism, personal freedom, and the critique of industrial society.

Know-Nothing Party

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Know-Nothing Party was a nativist political movement that aimed to restrict immigration and limit the influence of Catholics and immigrants, particularly from Ireland and Germany. They believed that immigration was the issue to labor, not slavery. The party grew out of fears that large numbers of Catholic immigrants would threaten American Protestant values and institutions. Its members, often secretive and sworn to answer questions about their activities with "I know nothing," opposed the extension of slavery into new territories but focused mainly on anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments. The Know-Nothing Party gained brief popularity in the mid-1850s but quickly declined as sectional tensions over slavery dominated national politics.

Republican Party formed

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Republican Party was formed in 1854 in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed the expansion of slavery into new territories. A coalition of anti-slavery Whigs, Free Soilers, abolitionists, and former Democrats came together to oppose the spread of slavery into the western territories. The new party quickly gained support in the northern states, advocating for a free labor economy, protective tariffs, internal improvements, and the restriction of slavery. The Republican Party’s rise marked a turning point in American politics, ultimately leading to the election of Abraham Lincoln as the first Republican president in 1860. Directly after his election, South Carolina seceded from the union as they believed it threatened slavery.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Franklin Pierce

1854

The Kansas-Nebraska Act, authored by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and allowed settlers in those territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery through popular sovereignty. This repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery north of the 36°30′ latitude line. The act was intended to facilitate the construction of a transcontinental railroad, but it ignited fierce debates and violence, as pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions rushed into Kansas to influence the vote. The resulting conflict, known as "Bleeding Kansas," was a series of violent conflicts between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the Kansas Territory during the mid-1850s, sparked by the contentious issue of whether the territory would allow slavery following the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Walt Whitman Leaves of Grass

Franklin Pierce

Leaves of Grass is a groundbreaking poetry collection of six poems by Walt Whitman, celebrated for its bold themes of individualism, democracy, and the American experience which broke away from traditional poetic forms, reflecting his belief in the potential of the self and the nation. The collection explores themes of nature, sexuality, the body, the interconnectedness of all people, and the divine presence within ordinary life. Whitman’s inclusive and egalitarian vision of humanity is embodied in his famous poem Song of Myself, where he asserts the unity of all individuals and the sanctity of each person’s experience. It pushed the boundaries of what was seen as decent which raised public debates over what is vulgar.

Topeka Constitution

Franklin Pierce

1855

The Topeka Constitution was created by anti-slavery settlers in Kansas in response to the pro-slavery legislature set up under the Kansas-Nebraska Act. In protest of the pro-slavery government's actions, free-state settlers convened in Topeka and drafted a constitution that banned slavery and sought to make Kansas a free state. However, the federal government, under President Franklin Pierce, rejected the Topeka Constitution in favor of the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution. Despite its lack of official recognition, the Topeka Constitution symbolized the deepening divisions over slavery in Kansas, contributing to the violence known as Bleeding Kansas.

Bleeding Kansas

Franklin Pierce

1856

Bleeding Kansas refers to the violent conflict in the Kansas Territory between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions, sparked by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It led to an influx of both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers. Tensions quickly escalated, resulting in widespread violence, including clashes between armed groups, raids, and massacres. The most infamous incident was the Pottawatomie Massacre, when abolitionist John Brown and his followers killed five pro-slavery settlers. Bleeding Kansas intensified sectional tensions in Congress, exposing the failure of popular sovereignty and contributing to the collapse of the Whig Party and the rise of the Republican Party. The violence and chaos surrounding Kansas's status as a free or slave state deepened the divide between North and South, escalating the political crisis that would lead to the Civil War.

Preston Brooks/Charles Sumner clash

Franklin Pierce

1856

The Preston Brooks/Charles Sumner clash was a violent incident in the U.S. Senate when Senator Charles Sumner, a leading abolitionist from Massachusetts, delivered a fiery speech condemning slavery and specifically criticizing South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler for his pro-slavery stance. In retaliation, Preston Brooks, a South Carolina congressman and Butler's relative, physically attacked Sumner on the Senate floor. Brooks beat Sumner with a cane until he was severely injured. The attack shocked the nation, with pro-slavery Southerners praising Brooks as a hero, while Northerners viewed it as an assault on free speech and a sign of the South's growing violence over the issue of slavery so they sent him canes. This event deepened the divide between the North and South as it pitted them against each other because it bred distrust between aggression between the sides.

James Buchanan

1857-1861 Democrat

Dred Scott Case

James Buchanan

1857

The Dred Scott v. Sandford case was a landmark Supreme Court decision where Dred Scott, an enslaved African American man, sued for his freedom after living in free territories with his owner. The Supreme Court ruled against Scott, stating that African Americans could not be considered U.S. citizens and therefore had no right to sue in federal court. The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in certain U.S. territories, unconstitutional, arguing that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories. This decision effectively allowed slavery to expand into all U.S. territories which removed any opportunity to question the expansion of slavery because they were seen as property and property could be taken anywhere. The Fulton Street Revival and other Northern church movements in the mid-1800s were key in galvanizing anti-slavery sentiment, with many religious leaders and congregations advocating for abolition.

Panic of 1857

James Buchanan

The Panic of 1857 was a financial crisis in the United States caused by a combination of factors, including over-speculation in railroads, falling agricultural prices, and a banking crisis. The panic caused widespread unemployment and business failures, especially in the North, while the South, with its cotton economy, was less affected. The crisis deepened sectional divisions, with Southerners arguing that the South's reliance on cotton and slavery had shielded it from the economic collapse, while Northerners blamed the free-market system and the expansion of slavery for the instability. This caused the south to essentially act like a child to the north because they were fine. The Panic of 1857 further fueled tensions between the North and South, contributing to the political and economic stresses that would eventually lead to the Civil War.

Hinton Helper Impending Crisis in the South

James Buchanan

1857

Hinton Rowan Helper's The Impending Crisis of the South was a controversial anti-slavery book that criticized the economic and social systems of the South. Helper, a white Southern author, argued that slavery was detrimental to the economic development of the South, particularly for poor white farmers, as it concentrated wealth and power in the hands of a small elite. He believed that the institution of slavery hindered industrialization and kept Southern whites in poverty. Helper's book was widely condemned in the South and banned in many Southern states, but it gained significant attention in the North, where it fueled anti-slavery sentiment. It portrayed the South’s lack of industrialization which is why they lost the war. Though the book did not call for immediate abolition, it challenged the prevailing Southern defense of slavery and contributed to the growing sectional divide that would lead to the Civil War.

Lecompton Constitution

James Buchanan

1858

The Lecompton Constitution was a pro-slavery constitution drafted for the state of Kansas by a convention of pro-slavery settlers in the Kansas Territory. It was created amid the violent conflict of Bleeding Kansas and sought to admit Kansas as a slave state. The constitution was deeply controversial because it was written by a minority of pro-slavery delegates, and it was rejected by the majority of Kansas settlers who opposed slavery. Despite this, President James Buchanan supported the Lecompton Constitution and attempted to push it through Congress. However, it was ultimately defeated in the Senate and in a referendum vote in Kansas, which overwhelmingly rejected it. The episode deepened the sectional conflict between North and South and further illustrated the failure of popular sovereignty in resolving the issue of slavery in the territories.

Lincoln-Douglass Debates

James Buchanan

1858

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas a year after the Dred Scott Case. The debates focused primarily on the issue of slavery, with Lincoln arguing against its expansion into the territories and promoting the idea of a "House Divided" that could not endure half slave and half free. Douglas, on the other hand, advocated for popular sovereignty, the idea that settlers in each territory should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. While Douglas won re-election to the Senate, the debates elevated Lincoln’s national profile, positioning him as a strong opponent of slavery’s expansion, which helped him win the presidency in 1860. Also, Lincoln’s Free Port Doctrine led people to believe he wanted to abolish slavery further leading to this.

Raid on Harpers Ferry

James Buchanan

1859

The Raid on Harper's Ferry was an attempted armed rebellion led by John Brown, an abolitionist who sought to incite a slave uprising in the South. Brown and a group of men—both black and white—raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with the goal of seizing weapons and distributing them to enslaved people to spark a revolt. However, the raid was quickly suppressed by local militia and U.S. Marines, led by Colonel Robert E. Lee. Brown was captured, tried for treason, and executed. The raid intensified national tensions over slavery, with many in the North viewing Brown as a martyr for the abolitionist cause, while many in the South saw the raid as proof of a growing abolitionist conspiracy.

Comstock Lode

James Buchanan

1859

The Comstock Lode was a massive silver discovery in western Nevada, near Virginia City. Discovered by miners Henry Comstock and others, it was the first major silver deposit found in the United States and became one of the richest silver strikes in history. The discovery led to a rush of prospectors and settlers to the area, contributing to the rapid development of Nevada. It significantly boosted the U.S. economy, supplying silver that was used to expand the money supply and finance the Civil War. The Comstock Lode also played a key role in Nevada's statehood, as it helped the territory grow economically and population-wise, leading to its admission as a state in 1864. The lode transformed the mining industry and set a precedent for other mineral discoveries in the American West. It led to further westward expansion.

South Carolina secession

James Buchanan

1860

Following the Nashville Convention, South Carolina's secession was the first act in the series of events that led to the outbreak of the American Civil War. South Carolina formally declared its secession from the Union, citing the election of Abraham Lincoln as the final catalyst. Lincoln’s anti-slavery platform was seen by Southern leaders as a direct threat to the institution of slavery, which was central to their economy and way of life. South Carolina’s secession was followed by other Southern states, and together they formed the Confederate States of America in early 1861. The secession of South Carolina and the subsequent formation of the Confederacy marked the beginning of the Civil War, as the federal government refused to recognize the legitimacy of secession and sought to preserve the Union by force.

Montgomery Convention; Confederate States of America

James Buchanan

1861

The Montgomery Convention was a meeting held in Montgomery, Alabama, where delegates from seven seceded Southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas—convened to establish a new government. They formed the Confederate States of America, electing Jefferson Davis as its president and Alexander H. Stephens as vice president. The Confederate constitution was modeled on the U.S. Constitution but explicitly protected the institution of slavery and emphasized states' rights. The formation of the CSA marked a definitive break from the Union, and the Confederacy soon sought to establish itself as a sovereign nation, leading to the start of the Civil War when Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter in April 1861. The Montgomery Convention and the creation of the Confederate States were key steps in the Southern states' secession and the intensifying conflict over slavery and states' rights.

Crittenden Compromise fails

James Buchanan

1861

The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the Civil War by addressing the issues of slavery and sectional tensions. Proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, the compromise aimed to extend the Missouri Compromise line (36°30′ latitude) to the Pacific, allowing slavery in the territories south of the line while prohibiting it to the north. It also included provisions to protect slavery in states where it already existed and proposed federal compensation for runaway slaves. Despite gaining some support in the South, the compromise failed to pass in Congress. President-elect Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party opposed it, as it would have allowed the expansion of slavery into new territories. The failure of the Crittenden Compromise highlighted the growing irreconcilable differences between the North and South, and only a few months later, the Civil War began.

Abraham Lincoln

1861-1865 - Republican

Fort Sumter

1861

Fort Sumter, located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, was the site of the first military engagement of the American Civil War. In April 1861, after most Southern states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederacy, tensions escalated over federal properties in the South. When Union troops, led by Major Robert Anderson, occupied Fort Sumter, Confederate forces under Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard demanded its surrender. After negotiations failed, Confederate forces opened fire on April 12, 1861. Lincoln decided to resupply his troops instead of evacuating which caused the last four states to secede from the Union. The bombardment lasted for 34 hours, and the Union garrison eventually surrendered on April 13. This led to the rest of the battles in the Civil War.

The Trent Affair

The Trent Affair was a diplomatic crisis between the United States and Britain during the Civil War. The U.S. Navy intercepted the British ship Trent and captured two Confederate diplomats, James Mason and John Slidell, who were on their way to Europe to seek support for the Confederacy. Britain protested the action as a violation of its neutrality and demanded their release. After tense negotiations, Lincoln released the diplomats, avoiding war with Britain. This was important as Lincoln was careful to ensure that Britain did not support the Confederacy. These relations could have decided Britain's stance on the war either Union or Confederate which would significantly aid whatever side chosen. The incident underscored the challenges the U.S. faced in maintaining international relations during the Civil War.

Habeas Corpus is suspended in Washington D.C. and Maryland

In 1861, during the early days of the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln suspended habeas corpus (the right to challenge unlawful detention) in Washington, D.C., and parts of Maryland to prevent Confederate sympathizers from disrupting Union efforts. This action was taken after riots broke out in Baltimore and fears grew that secessionist forces might cut off the capital from the rest of the Union. Lincoln authorized military arrests without trial without addressing congress as they were not in session, allowing the Union to detain suspected traitors and maintain order in strategically important areas. The suspension was controversial, as it limited civil liberties, but Lincoln argued it was necessary for national security during the rebellion. It also set a dangerous precedent which gave the executive a lot of power.

US Sanitary Commission created

1861

The U.S. Sanitary Commission was created in 1861 to improve the health and living conditions of Union soldiers during the Civil War. Organized by civilians and led by health professionals, it provided medical supplies, organized field hospitals, and promoted sanitation reforms to prevent disease and improve soldier welfare. While paid agents and spokesmen were male, over 200,000 women supported the commission as volunteers, working through seven thousand local auxiliaries. Despite these efforts, dysentery, typhoid, and malaria spread through the camps, as did mumps and measles, viruses that were often deadly to rural recruits. Diseases and infections killed about twice the Union soldiers than who died in combat. Confederate troops were less fortunate because the Confederate army’s health system was poorly organized. Scurvy was a special problem for southern soldiers; lacking vitamin C in their diets, they suffered muscle ailments and had low resistance to camp diseases. This is a major reason why the Confederates lost the war.

Monitor and Merrimac

1862

The Monitor and Merrimac (also known as the Virginia) were ironclad warships that famously fought in the Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862, marking the first meeting in combat of iron-hulled warships. The Monitor, a Union vessel designed by Swedish engineer John Ericsson, was a small, revolving turret ship, while the Merrimac, a former wooden warship that had been refitted by the Confederacy with iron plating, was a formidable force. The battle ended in a stalemate, with neither ship able to decisively defeat the other, but it demonstrated the effectiveness of ironclad ships over traditional wooden warships. In addition, this was the first time two ironclads clashed. This shows the massive mechanization of warfare and industrial war which was coming with the Civil War; it was a turning point in warfare. This clash revolutionized naval warfare, signaling the end of the age of wooden warships and leading to the widespread adoption of ironclads in navies worldwide.

Homestead Act

1862

The Homestead Act was a landmark law signed by President Abraham Lincoln that provided 160 acres of public land in the western United States to settlers for a small fee, provided they improved the land by building a dwelling and cultivating crops. The goal was to promote westward expansion, encourage agricultural development, and give opportunities to poor and landless Americans, including freed slaves and immigrants. The act resulted in the settlement of millions of acres, contributing to the growth of the American frontier and the establishment of new towns and communities, though it also led to conflicts with Native American tribes and environmental challenges.

Morrill Land Grant Act

1862

The Morrill Land-Grant Act was a federal law that provided states with large tracts of public land to establish colleges focused on agriculture, engineering, and military science. Sponsored by Representative Justin Morrill, the act aimed to expand higher education and make it more accessible to the working class and farmers. States could sell the land to fund the creation of colleges, which became known as land-grant colleges. The act helped to democratize education in the U.S., leading to the establishment of many universities, such as Michigan State, Iowa State, and Cornell University, and played a key role in the development of agricultural and technical education. It fostered a more efficient agriculture based economy in the Great Plains.

Pacific Railways Act

1862

The Pacific Railway Act was a key piece of legislation that authorized the construction of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The act granted land and provided government loans to two private companies, the Union Pacific Railroad and the Central Pacific Railroad, to build a railroad connecting the eastern U.S. to the West Coast. The Union Pacific began construction in the east, while the Central Pacific started from California. The completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 revolutionized transportation, facilitating westward expansion, boosting the economy, and promoting trade and settlement across the country. With the connection of the unoccupied land between tem, it created a greater Union and greater settlement as it helped populate the areas. The Pacific Railway Act played a crucial role in shaping the U.S. into a more unified and industrialized nation.

Antietam

1862

After his victory at Bull Run, General Robert E. Lee led the Confederate Army into Maryland in September 1862, hoping that a victory on Union soil would secure British recognition and support for the Confederacy. At the time, President Lincoln had restored General George McClellan to command. McClellan gained an advantage when a copy of Lee's battle plans was found by Union forces. The two armies clashed at Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland, resulting in the bloodiest single day of combat in the war, with over 22,000 casualties. Lee's army was unable to break through Union lines and retreated to Virginia. While the battle was essentially a draw, it was a strategic Union success because Lee failed to achieve his objectives, and Britain and France did not offer recognition or aid to the Confederacy. Lincoln, encouraged by the outcome, used the battle as a platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation, marking a shift in the war's focus to the abolition of slavery.

20 Negro Law

1862

The 20 Negro Law, passed by the Confederacy, was a controversial policy that exempted men from military service if they owned 20 or more slaves. The law was designed to address manpower shortages in the Confederate army by allowing wealthier plantation owners to remain at home, ostensibly to oversee their large estates and slaves, while poorer white men, who owned fewer slaves or none at all, were drafted into military service. The law was deeply unpopular among the Southern poor and fueled resentment, as it created the perception that the wealthy were avoiding the hardships of war while the common people bore the brunt of the fighting. This policy highlighted the growing class divisions within the Confederacy and contributed to internal tensions as the war dragged on. It also continued the the idea of poor mans fight in a rich mans war.

Emancipation Proclamation

1863

President Lincoln decided to use his war powers to free enslaved people in Confederate states, citing it as a "military necessity." It was also addressing the Dred Scott Case and Lincoln had to be careful with violating the 5th Amendment. After the Union victory at Antietam, because Lincoln politically needed a victory, Lincoln issued a warning that all slaves in rebellious states would be freed by January 1, 1863, and on that date, he signed the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all enslaved people in Confederate territory "forever free." This did not end slavery, it just said they could be free. While it did not immediately free slaves in Union-controlled or border states, the proclamation redefined the war’s purpose by adding the fight against slavery to the Union’s objectives, leading to the eventual freedom of hundreds of thousands of enslaved people who escaped to Union lines. It led to England hesitating to support the confederacy as they had already abolished slavery causing an economic disruption in the south with the export of cotton, and the 13th amendment.

54th Massachusetts is organized

1863

The 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment was the first African American unit to fight for the Union during the Civil War which was formed by Fredrick Douglass. Led by Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, the regiment was composed primarily of freedmen and former slaves, and its formation marked a significant step toward the integration of African Americans into the U.S. military. The 54th became famous for its courageous assault on Fort Wagner in South Carolina in July 1863, where they fought bravely despite heavy casualties, highlighting the valor and capabilities of African American soldiers. Their service helped challenge racial prejudices and paved the way for the eventual recruitment of more than 180,000 African American soldiers into the Union army by the end of the war because Congress allowed enlistment to African Americans.

National Bank Act

1863

The National Bank Act of 1863 was a key piece of legislation passed during the Civil War to stabilize and improve the U.S. banking system. It established a system of national banks, authorized by the federal government, which could issue nationally-chartered banknotes backed by the U.S. Treasury bonds. The Act aimed to create a uniform currency, eliminate state-chartered banks that issued their own currency, and strengthen the federal government’s control over the economy. It also helped finance the Union war effort by providing a more stable financial system, and tied citizens to the government for loans. This was a major financial connection from citizens to banks. The National Bank Act laid the groundwork for a modern, centralized banking system in the United States.

Enrollment Act—draft

1863

The Enrollment Act, also known as the Union Draft, was a law passed by Congress to create a national military draft during the Civil War to address manpower shortages in the Union Army. The act required all male citizens between the ages of 20 and 45 to register for potential military service, and it allowed for conscription if necessary which tapped into a large number of men to join the union army. However, men could avoid service by paying a $300 exemption fee or by finding a substitute to take their place. The draft led to widespread protests, most notably the New York City Draft Riots, where working-class citizens, particularly Irish immigrants, rebelled against the draft, protesting both the inequity of the system and the idea of fighting to end slavery. Despite the unrest, the Enrollment Act successfully bolstered the Union Army, which would eventually grow to over two million soldiers which made total war and a civilian relation.

Vicksburg

1863

The Battle of Vicksburg was a pivotal Union victory during the Civil War, led by General Ulysses S. Grant. The battle took place in Vicksburg, Mississippi, which was one of the last major Confederate strongholds on the Mississippi River. It was a result of the Anaconda Plan which was when the Union had a blockade from Delaware to the end of Alabama. Control of Vicksburg was crucial for the Union to complete its goal of splitting the Confederacy in two and securing full control of the river for military and supply purposes. After a prolonged siege lasting over six weeks, the Confederate forces, commanded by Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton, were forced to surrender after living in caves and being starved. The victory gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, significantly weakening the Confederacy and boosting Northern morale. It was also a turning point in Grant’s career, leading to his promotion to general-in-chief of all Union armies and catching Lincoln’s attention.

Gettysburg

1863

The Battle of Gettysburg marked the turning point of the war in favor of the Union. Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched a second invasion of the North, hoping to defeat Union forces on their own soil and force a negotiated peace and to take the war to the northern population. However, Union General George G. Meade's Army of the Potomac, guarding DC, successfully repelled the Confederate assault, inflicting heavy casualties on Lee's forces, which suffered over 28,000 casualties compared to the Union's 23,000. The defeat ended Lee's invasion of the North and forced him to retreat back to the South, severely weakening them. The battle was followed by President Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg Address in November 1863, which redefined the war as a fight not only for the Union but also for abolition. The Union victory at Gettysburg, along with the fall of Vicksburg , marked a turning point in the Civil War, shifting the war of attrition in favor of the North. It also caused COngress to start pressuring Lincoln to end the war as they saw it first hand.

New York Draft Riots

1863

The New York Draft Riots were violent protests against the Union draft during the Civil War. Triggered by the Enrollment Act, the riots were fueled by anger over the perceived unfairness of the system, particularly the provision that allowed wealthier men to avoid service by paying a $300 exemption fee. The protests were mostly led by working-class Irish immigrants, who resented being forced to fight in a war they saw as benefiting African Americans and the wealthy, while they had little to gain. The did not want to fight “Mr. Lincoln’s War.” The riots escalated into four days of violence, including attacks on African Americans, draft offices, and government buildings. The military was eventually called in to restore order, and over 100 people were killed. The riots exposed deep social, racial, and class tensions in the North and underscored the growing divisions over the war, particularly regarding the issue of emancipation.

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction “10% Plan”

1863

The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, or the "10% Plan", introduced by President Abraham Lincoln in December 1863, was a lenient strategy aimed at reintegrating the Southern states back into the Union during the Civil War. It offered pardons to Southerners who took an oath of allegiance to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery. Once 10% of the voters in a state (based on the 1860 election rolls) pledged loyalty and established a new government, the state could rejoin the Union and send representatives to Congress. Lincoln’s goal was to promote swift reconciliation and reunification, but the plan faced criticism from Radical Republicans, who felt it was too lenient and failed to protect the rights of freed African Americans. This would have also broken up the Confederacy, giving the Union a major advantage. Despite opposition, it laid the foundation for the early phases of Reconstruction.

Wade Davis Bill (pocket veto)

1864

The Wade-Davis Bill of 1864 was a proposal by two Radical Republican Congressmen, Henry Winter Davis and Benjamin Wade, for the Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War. It was much harsher than Lincoln's 10% Plan and required that 50% of a Southern state's voters take an "ironclad" loyalty oath (swearing they had never supported the Confederacy), before they could reestablish a state government. The bill also insisted on stronger protections for the rights of freed slaves. Lincoln, however, strongly disagreed with the bill’s provisions, especially its punitive approach, and pocket-vetoed it—choosing not to sign it into law and letting it die by not acting on it before Congress adjourned. The veto reflected Lincoln's preference for a more lenient and forgiving approach to Reconstruction, which would later be at odds with the more radical measures pursued by Congress after his assassination.

Sherman’s March

1864

Sherman’s March to the Sea was a devastating military campaign led by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman during the American Civil War. After capturing Atlanta, Georgia, Sherman embarked on a 300-mile march from Atlanta to the port city of Savannah. His goal was to cripple the Confederacy’s war effort by destroying infrastructure, supplies, and civilian property that supported the Confederate military. Sherman’s troops burned crops, tore up railroads, and destroyed factories, essentially engaging in total war, which aimed to break the South’s will to continue fighting. The march caused widespread destruction and terror in the South, but it significantly weakened Confederate resources and morale. Upon reaching Savannah, Sherman captured the city and then continued his march northward, further demoralizing the South. The campaign was a major Union victory and is often cited as a key factor in hastening the end of the war.

Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre, in southeastern Colorado, when a U.S. Army regiment, led by Colonel John Chivington, attacked a peaceful encampment of Cheyenne and Arapaho Native Americans at Sand Creek. The Native Americans, including women and children, had been assured safety by the U.S. government and were under the protection of the U.S. Army, but they were violently attacked without warning. Over 150 Native Americans were killed, most of them women, children, and elderly, and their bodies were mutilated. The massacre was widely condemned, even by some within the U.S. government, and it deepened tensions between Native Americans and the U.S. government, contributing to a series of violent conflicts in the years that followed. It is considered one of the most tragic and controversial events in the history of U.S. westward expansion.

13th Amendment

Passed by Congress in 1865

The 13th Amendment, ratified in December 1865, officially abolished slavery in the United States, freeing around 4 million enslaved people, including 3.5 million in the Confederate states and 500,000 in border states. While the U.S. Constitution had not previously banned slavery, the amendment provided a clear legal end to the institution: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime... shall exist within the United States." Although the abolition of slavery was a monumental step, it did not immediately solve the economic and political challenges faced by freed African Americans, who would continue to endure hardship and oppression for generations. Still, the amendment granted them legal protection and the possibility of freedom and rights under the U.S. Constitution, marking a significant shift in American society.

Freedmen Bureau established

1865

The Freedmen's Bureau was established in 1865 by Congress to assist formerly enslaved African Americans and poor whites in the South after the Civil War. Officially called the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, its primary goals were to provide food, shelter, medical care, and education to freedmen and refugees, helping to teach them how to live in society. It also helped negotiate labor contracts, provide legal assistance, and secure land for Black families. The bureau played a crucial role in helping African Americans transition to freedom and navigate the challenges of post-war Reconstruction but raised the question of what they are going to do with all of the freed slaves. Despite facing resistance from Southern whites and limited resources, the Freedmen's Bureau made significant contributions to the education and welfare of freedpeople, including establishing schools and hospitals. However, its effectiveness was diminished by political opposition and a lack of funding, and it was disbanded in 1872.

Robert E. Lee surrenders at the Appomattox Court House

1865

General Robert E. Lee, the symbolic leader of the confederacy, of the Confederate Army formally surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant of the Union Army at the Appomattox Court House in Virginia, effectively ending the American Civil War. After months of retreating and facing overwhelming Union forces, Lee realized that further resistance was futile. In a peaceful and respectful meeting, Grant offered generous terms of surrender: Confederate soldiers could return home, keeping their horses and personal belongings, and would not be prosecuted for treason. This surrender marked the collapse of the Confederacy, and though other Confederate armies would surrender in the following weeks, Appomattox is often seen as the symbolic end of the war. Lee's surrender helped set the stage for Reconstruction and the reunification of the United States.

Assassinated April 14, 1865- John Wilkes Booth

1865

On April 14, 1865, only a month after the surrender, President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer and actor, at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. Booth, believing that Lincoln's death would revive the Confederacy's cause, shot Lincoln in the back of the head during a performance of the play Our American Cousin. Lincoln was taken to a nearby boarding house, where he died the following morning, on April 15, 1865. Booth fled the scene and went into hiding, but was tracked down by Union soldiers and killed on April 26, 1865. Lincoln's assassination shocked the nation and left the country mourning its leader just as the Civil War was coming to an end. His death also had profound implications for Reconstruction, as Vice President Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency, facing the challenge of reuniting the nation. His death put the vice president into office who was not the best at reconstruction.

Andrew Johnson

1865-1869 Republican

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction

Andrew Johnson

1865

The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction provided a plan for the reintegration of the Southern states into the Union. Once  10% of Southerners took an oath to the Union, except for high-ranking Confederate leaders and wealthy landowners, the state could set up a new government and rejoin the Union. It was lenient and aimed at quickly restoring Southern states, but it was criticized by many. Radical Republicans felt it was too lenient and did not address the rights of freed slaves or the need for more thorough Reconstruction in the South. It led to the rise of "Redeemer" governments in the South, the enactment of Black Codes, and eventually the shift to Radical Reconstruction under Congressional control.

Presidential Reconstruction completed

Andrew Johnson

1865

Presidential Reconstruction was aimed to quickly reintegrate the Southern states into the Union. Johnson offered pardons to most Southern whites who swore allegiance to the Union. However, his lenient policies did not address the rights of freed African Americans, allowing Southern states to pass Black Codes that restricted black rights. The lack of protections for African Americans and the return of former Confederates to power led to tensions with Radical Republicans in Congress, setting the stage for Congressional Reconstruction. They implemented a plan of Reconstruction that gave the white South a free hand in regulating the transition from slavery to freedom and offered no role to blacks in the politics of the South.

Black Codes implemented in South

Andrew Johnson

1865

A set of discriminatory laws designed to limit the rights and freedoms of newly freed African Americans after the Civil War. They sought to maintain white supremacy and control over black labor by restricting African Americans' ability to move freely, own property, work in certain occupations, and testify in court. Some Black Codes required African Americans to sign labor contracts that bound them to work for a single employer, similar to slavery. They were intended to preserve the economic and social structure of the South. They provoked outrage in the North, leading to a shift from Presidential Reconstruction to Congressional Reconstruction, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the 14th Amendment, and the establishment of stronger protections for African Americans. They also set the base for the Jim Crow laws.

Ex Parte Milligan

Andrew Johnson

1866

Ex Parte Milligan was a Supreme Court case that ruled it was unconstitutional to try civilians in military tribunals when civilian courts were open and functioning. Lambdin P. Milligan, a civilian, was sentenced to death by a military commission in Indiana for his alleged involvement in a plot to aid the Confederacy. He argued his trial violated his constitutional rights, particularly the right to a trial by jury and protection against military overreach. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Milligan. The decision reinforced the limits of executive power during wartime and emphasized the importance of civilian judicial authority. It led to a reinforcement of civil liberties by limiting the use of military tribunals for civilians, asserting that constitutional protections could not be suspended while civilian courts were still operational.

National Labor Union founded

Andrew Johnson

1866

The National Labor Union was the first national labor organization in the United States, aiming to unite workers across different industries to advocate for better working conditions, higher wages, and the eight-hour workday. It sought to address the growing inequality and exploitation faced by laborers during the Industrial Revolution, and it also pushed for social reforms such as the establishment of a national bank and the abolition of child labor. Although the NLU was short-lived and eventually dissolved in 1873, it laid the groundwork for future growth of organized labor in the U.S., inspiring future labor movements and the eventual creation of more effective labor organizations, such as the American Federation of Labor, and contributing to the push for labor reforms.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

Andrew Johnson

1866

The Civil Rights Act was a law passed during Reconstruction that granted citizenship to all persons born in the U.S. and ensured equal protection under the law. It aimed to protect the rights of newly freed African Americans by prohibiting discrimination in contracts, property ownership, and legal proceedings. The act was passed over President Andrew Johnson's veto, marking a significant victory for Radical Republicans. It laid the groundwork for future civil rights protections, though its full impact was limited until the 14th Amendment reinforced these principles. It strengthened federal authority to protect civil rights, and set the stage for future civil rights legislation, though its full impact was limited until the 20th century.

KKK formed

Andrew Johnson

1866

The Ku Klux Klan was a group of Confederate veterans as a secret white supremacist organization. Initially, it aimed to resist Reconstruction efforts and intimidate African Americans and white Republicans who supported racial equality and civil rights. The KKK used terror tactics, including violence, lynchings, and arson, to suppress black voting and restore white dominance in the South. The Klan expanded across the South and became a major force in undermining Reconstruction, contributing to the region's return to white-controlled political power by the 1870s. In response, the federal government passed the Enforcement Acts to combat KKK violence, but the KKK's actions contributed to the eventual end of Reconstruction and the rise of Jim Crow laws.

Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction

Andrew Johnson

1867

Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction was a response to President Andrew Johnson's lenient policies toward the South. Led by the Radical Republicans in Congress, this phase aimed to ensure civil rights for African Americans and restructure Southern society. The Military Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into five military districts, placing them under martial law. This period also saw the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments, granting citizenship and voting rights to African Americans, and the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson in 1868 for defying congressional authority. It effectively ended with the Compromise of 1877, which saw the withdrawal of federal troops from the South and the end of Reconstruction, which marked the return of white-controlled governments in the South and the beginning of Jim Crow laws.

Tenure Office Act

Andrew Johnson

1867

The Tenure of Office Act was a law passed by Congress that restricted the president's power to remove certain officeholders without the Senate's approval. It required the president to obtain Senate consent before removing any official whose appointment had originally been confirmed by the Senate. The Act was designed to protect key members of President Andrew Johnson's cabinet, particularly Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who was aligned with the Radical Republicans and opposed Johnson's lenient Reconstruction policies. Johnson's violation of this law by firing Stanton without Senate approval led to his impeachment in 1868, although he was acquitted by one vote in the Senate. The Tenure of Office Act was later repealed in 1887, as it was seen as an overreach of congressional power.

Seward’s Folly [Alaska]

Andrew Johnson

1867

Seward's Folly refers to the U.S. purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million, which was negotiated by Secretary of State William H. Seward. At the time, many critics mocked the acquisition, calling it a "folly" because they saw Alaska as a barren, frozen wasteland with little value. However, the purchase later proved to be highly beneficial, as Alaska was rich in natural resources like gold, oil, and timber, making it a strategic and economic asset. The deal is now seen as a major success in U.S. expansionism. 

14th Amendment

Andrew Johnson

1868

The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved individuals, and provided for equal protection under the law. It also prohibited states from denying any person "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law," thus strengthening civil rights and limiting the power of state governments to infringe on individual rights. The amendment was a cornerstone of Reconstruction and laid the foundation for future civil rights protections.The 14th Amendment led to significant legal protections for African Americans, including the expansion of civil rights and the principle of equal protection under the law. It shaped the legal fight against segregation, discrimination, and injustice in later years, particularly during the Civil Rights Movement. Many people in the Women’s suffrage movement were also angry that it did not include them.

Impeachment Trial

Andrew Johnson

1868

The Impeachment Trial was the result of President Andrew Johnson's violation of the Tenure of Office Act, which he had broken by removing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and attempting to replace him with a more conservative ally without Senate approval. The House of Representatives impeached Johnson, accusing him of "high crimes and misdemeanors," largely due to his opposition to Congressional Reconstruction policies. Johnson was acquitted by a single vote, preventing his removal from office. It led to a weakened presidency for Andrew Johnson, a greater emphasis on congressional power during Reconstruction, and set a significant precedent for the impeachment process.

Transcontinental Railroad completed

Andrew Johnson

1869

The Transcontinental Railroad connected the eastern United States to the western frontier for the first time with a continuous rail line. It was finished when the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads met at Promontory Point, Utah. The railroad drastically reduced travel time across the country, facilitated the movement of goods and people, spurred economic growth, and played a crucial role in the expansion of the American West, including the settlement of new territories. It led to rapid westward expansion and growth in industries like agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. It also contributed to the displacement of Native American tribes and the development of new towns and cities, solidifying the United States' continental reach and reinforcing its industrial power.

Ulysses S. Grant

1869-1877 Republican

15th Amendment

Ulysses S. Grant

1870

The 15th Amendment granted African American men the right to vote, prohibiting the federal government and states from denying voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. It aimed at securing political rights for freed African Americans and ensuring their participation in the democratic process. The amendment's promise was undermined in the South by voter suppression tactics such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation, which persisted until the Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century. The 15th Amendment led to the expansion of voting rights for African American men. Many people in the Women’s suffrage movement were also angry that it did not include them.

Amnesty Act for ex-Confederates

Ulysses S. Grant

1870

The Amnesty Act of 1872 was a law that restored full political rights to most ex-Confederates, including the right to vote and hold public office. It marked a shift toward reconciliation in the South, as it aimed to heal the divisions, but it also effectively ended many of the gains made by African Americans during Reconstruction. By lifting restrictions on former Confederates, the act allowed Southern Democrats to regain control of state governments, contributing to the eventual end of Reconstruction and the rise of Jim Crow laws. 

Enforcement Acts

Ulysses S. Grant

1870

The Enforcement Acts of 1870 were a series of laws passed by Congress to combat the growing violence and intimidation by white supremacist groups, particularly KKK, in the South. These laws allowed the federal government to intervene in Southern states, protect African Americans' right to vote, and use military force if necessary to suppress KKK activities. They helped reduce KKK violence temporarily and were an attempt to protect the civil rights of African Americans during the Reconstruction era. However, after the acts were weakened and enforcement diminished, especially after the Compromise of 1877, Southern states increasingly circumvented these protections, contributing to the rise of Jim Crow laws and racial segregation in the late 19th century.

Yellowstone National Park

Ulysses S. Grant

1872

Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States and the world. It was created to preserve the unique natural landscapes, geothermal features, and diverse wildlife in the Yellowstone region, located primarily in Wyoming. The park's creation marked the beginning of the national parks movement, reflecting growing concerns about conservation and the need to protect natural resources from exploitation and development. The establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872 led to the creation of a national parks system in the United States, promoting conservation and the protection of natural landscapes for future generations. It also inspired the development of similar parks and the eventual formation of the National Park Service in 1916, which oversaw the management and preservation of federal parks across the country.

Anthony Comstock, Society for the Suppression of Vice

Ulysses S. Grant

1872

Anthony Comstock founded the Society for the Suppression of Vice to combat obscenity, gambling, and prostitution in the United States. Comstock's efforts led to the passage of the Comstock Laws, which criminalized the distribution of "obscene" materials, including birth control information and pornography, and gave him broad powers to enforce these laws. While Comstock's actions temporarily succeeded in limiting access to such materials, his campaign also contributed to the early 20th-century movements for women's rights and reproductive freedom, eventually leading to greater challenges against these moral restrictions, including the birth control movement and the broader fight for personal liberties.

Panic of 1873 [depression lasts until 1879]

Ulysses S. Grant

1873-1879

The Panic of 1873 was a severe economic depression triggered by the collapse of the banking firm Jay Cooke & Company, which had heavily invested in railroads, leading to widespread bank failures, stock market crashes, and a prolonged economic downturn. The depression resulted in widespread unemployment, business bankruptcies, and a deep financial crisis, particularly affecting industrial and agricultural sectors, and it led to significant political and social unrest during the Gilded Age. It also sparked debates over monetary policy, leading to the Silver Movement and the eventual passage of the Bland-Allison Act in 1878, which required the U.S. government to purchase silver and mint silver coins, and contributed to the rise of labor movements advocating for workers' rights and better economic conditions.

Mark Twain Gilded Age

Ulysses S. Grant

1873

Mark Twain's Gilded Age satirized the period of rapid economic growth and political corruption. The novel critiques the greed, materialism, and political graft that characterized the era, exposing the stark contrast between the glittering appearance of prosperity and the underlying social and economic problems, such as inequality, exploitation, and political dishonesty. It led to greater public awareness and criticism of the corruption, inequality, and greed that characterized the period, influencing later progressive reforms. The novel helped inspire calls for political and economic change, contributing to the rise of the Progressive Era in the early 20th century, when reforms aimed at curbing corruption, improving labor conditions, and regulating big business gained momentum.

Slaughterhouse Cases

Ulysses S. Grant

1873

The Slaughterhouse Cases were a group of Supreme Court decisions that significantly limited the scope of the 14th Amendment's protections. The Court ruled that the privileges or immunities clause of the 14th Amendment only protected rights associated with national citizenship, not those related to state citizenship, thereby allowing states to regulate local businesses without interference from federal civil rights protections. This ruling weakened the federal government's ability to protect individual rights at the state level and undermined efforts to protect African Americans' rights during Reconstruction. This decision set back Reconstruction-era civil rights protections and paved the way for the development of Jim Crow laws, as it allowed states to impose discriminatory practices without significant federal intervention.

Credit Mobilier scandal

Ulysses S. Grant

1873

The Credit Mobilier scandal involved a construction company, Credit Mobilier of America, that was created by executives of the Union Pacific Railroad to build the railroad at inflated prices, while secretly paying off government officials and members of Congress with stock in the company to secure favorable treatment and avoid investigations. The scandal came to light leading to mass distrust. Several high-ranking officials, including the Vice President, were implicated, although few were prosecuted. It led to widespread public outrage over government corruption and the unethical relationship between big business and politicians during the Gilded Age. It contributed to growing calls for political reform, including the push for civil service reform and greater oversight of business practices, setting the stage for later progressive movements aimed at curbing corporate influence and increasing transparency in government.

Whiskey Ring scandal

Ulysses S. Grant

1875

The Whiskey Ring scandal was a major political scandal involving a network of government officials, distillers, and distributors who defrauded the federal government of millions of dollars in whiskey taxes. It diverted tax revenues and bribed Treasury Department officials to avoid paying taxes on whiskey, which was a significant source of federal revenue. When the scandal was exposed, it led to several high-profile convictions, including the indictment of Grant's private secretary, although Grant himself was not directly implicated. It led to a loss of public trust in the Grant administration, exposed widespread corruption within the federal government, and increased calls for reform in government practices and oversight.

Gold discovered in Black Hills, South Dakota

Ulysses S. Grant

1874

Gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota, which led to a rush of miners and settlers into the area, despite it being part of land guaranteed to the Lakota Sioux by the Treaty of Fort Laramie. This discovery triggered conflicts between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, eventually leading to the Great Sioux War and the forced relocation of the Lakota Sioux. It led to a rush of settlers into Native American territory, violating the Treaty of Fort Laramie. This conflict resulted in the defeat of the U.S. Army at the Battle of Little Bighorn, the eventual forced relocation of the Lakota Sioux, and further tensions between Native Americans and the U.S. government over land rights and sovereignty.

WCTU Women Christian Temperance Union

Ulysses S. Grant

1874

The Women's Christian Temperance Union was an organization dedicated to promoting temperance as well as advocating for women's rights and social reforms. Led by figures like Frances Willard, the WCTU became one of the most influential women's organizations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, pushing for alcohol regulation, labor reforms, and women's suffrage, ultimately contributing to the passage of the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) in 1919 and the 19th Amendment (women's right to vote) in 1920. The WCTU also played a key role in advocating for labor rights, educational reform, and women's involvement in public life, making it a major force in the broader Progressive Movement.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

Ulysses S. Grant

1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was a law that aimed to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, such as hotels, restaurants, and transportation, and to prohibit discrimination in jury selection. It was one of the last major pieces of Reconstruction legislation, but its enforcement was weak, and the Supreme Court later ruled parts of it unconstitutional in 1883, effectively dismantling federal protections for African Americans in public spaces. The Act had limited impact due to legal challenges and widespread resistance in the South, leading to the rise of Jim Crow laws. It led to a temporary boost in efforts to guarantee civil rights for African Americans, but its weakening enforcement ultimately led to its inefficiency.

Battle of Little BigHorn

Ulysses S. Grant

1876

The Battle of Little Bighorn was a significant conflict between the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and the U.S. Army. Led by General George Armstrong Custer, the U.S. Army attacked a large Native American camp in the Black Hills of Montana, but was decisively defeated by a coalition of Native American forces led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The battle became famous for the complete annihilation of Custer's 7th Cavalry, and although it was a major victory for Native Americans, it ultimately led to intensified U.S. military action and the eventual defeat and forced relocation of Native tribes to reservations. While the battle was a significant victory for the Native Americans, it ultimately contributed to their eventual defeat, as the U.S. military escalated its actions, leading to the Great Sioux War's conclusion and the weakening of Native resistance in the late 19th century.