Introduction to Psychology

Nervous System

Electrochemical communication network that consists of all of the nerve cells of the peripheral and CNS. Communicates between brain and body

Synapses

Where neurotransmitters are released by vesicles to be accepted by receptors; the junction between the terminal branch of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

Creates arousal. Fight or flight and channels resources to muscles

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

Calming and channels resources to internal organs

Brain Stem

Responsible for survival. Consists of pons, medulla, reticular formation, and thalamus

Limbic System

Responsible for emotions and drives. Consists of hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Cerebral Cortex

Ultimate control and info processing center that consists of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres

Hypothalamus

Controls emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production

Amygdala

Controls anger and fear

Hippocampus

Forms new memories

Medulla

(Base of brain stem) controls most basic functions like heartbeat and breathing

Pons

Coordinate automatic and unconscious movements

Frontal Lobe

Planning, decision making, speaking. Includes primary motor cortex

Temporal Lobe

Auditory processing

Parietal Lobe

Sensory input for touch and position. Includes primary somatosensory cortex

Occipital Lobe

Receives visual info

Cerebellum

Balance and movement

Thalamus

Filters where messages go

Left hemisphere

Language and speech. Analytical thinking

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right hemispheres

Right hemisphere

Emotions, spatial problems, ability to recognize objects and ppl

fMRI

Measures oxygen flow to the brain during tasks. Poor temporal resolution. Good spatial resolution. Non-invasive

How can we study the brain?

Case studies, Lesioning, single cell imagining, and monitoring/imagining activity in the brain

Motor cortex

Part of cortex that controls and executes movements of body by sending signals

Psychology

is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What Makes Psychology a Science?

1. Carefully measured observations 2. experiments

Behaviorism

The scientific study of observable behavior...

* All behavior is a result of conditioning
* The environment shapes behavior through reinforcement
* Behaviors and mental processes are due to responses to stimuli

Psychodynamic Psychology

focuses on the roles of unconscious drives and wishes and childhood experiences and how they influence our behaviors and mental states

Psychoanalysis

a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century

Cognitive Psychology

Thinks of the brain as a computer

• Focused on mental processes like perception, thinking, memory, and judgment

Social-Cultural Psychology

The study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior

Social Norms

Ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving shared by group members

Basic Research Areas

• Biological

• Cognitive

• Developmental

• Social

• Personality

Intuition

Understanding of the world based on instincts developed through experience rather than conscious reasoning

Hindsight Bias

Once you know the answer, it's impossible to remember what it felt like to not know

The Scientific Method

the set of rules, assumptions, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research

Observation

A pattern of behavior or a perceived relationship between variables

Theory

an explanation of behavior or phenomena derived from organized observations that leads to a testable research hypothesis.

research hypothesis

specific and falsifiable prediction of an outcome based on a theory.

Operational Definitions

specifies how the variables will be measured.

Case Study

Observing and gathering information to compile an in-depth study of an individual or small group

Naturalistic Observation

gathering data about behavior, watching but not intervening

Surveys

Gathering many people's thoughts, attitudes and behaviors through self-report

Correlation Methods

* an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other
* surveys
* experiments
* observations of many people
* correlation coefficient

weaknesses

* does not specify causation

Experimental Methods

a type of research in which the researcher carefully manipulates a limited number of factors (IVs) and measures the impact on other factors (DVs)

weaknesses

* sometimes not possible for practical or ethical reasons; results may not generalize to other contexts

Independent variable

A variable that is set, changed, or manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent variable

A variable that is measured to see whether they change as a result of experimental manipulations.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation being studied.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment and is otherwise identical to the experimental group

Random Assignment

randomly selecting some study participants to be assigned to the control group or the experimental group.

Replication

repeating a study to determine whether the same results can be achieved

Validity

the extent to which research measures what it is supposed to measure

Dendrites

receives messages from other cells

Axon

passes messages from the cell body to other neurons

Terminal Branches

form junctions with other neurons

Myelin Sheath

covers axon and helps speed up neural impulses

Autonomic Nervous System

controls self-regulated actions of internal organs and glands

Childhood

the time during which toddlers grow up almost into adolescents

Schemas

theories about how the physical and social worlds operate

Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget

Viewed cognitive development as a combination of nature and nurture

Children develop cognitive abilities through

\-maturation and

\-interacting/playing with the environment

\
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational,

Attachment

refers to an emotional tie to another person

Erikson's Stages

Infancy: 0-1

Toddlerhood: 1-3 \n Preschool: 3-6 \n Elementary School: 6-puberty \n Adolescence: teens-20s \n Young Adulthood: 20s-40s \n Middle adulthood: 40s-60s \n Late Adulthood: 60s and on

Lawrence Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning

Postconventional morality \n -(later adolescence and adulthood): "Sometimes rules need to be set aside to pursue higher principles." \n \n Conventional morality \n -(early adolescence): "Follow the rules because we get along better if everyone does the right thing." \n \n Preconventional morality \n -(up to age 9): "Follow the rules because if you don't, you'll get in trouble; if you do, you might get a treat."

Generativity

A feeling of concern about, or interest in guiding and shaping the next generation. Erikson

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimuli in our environment. The brain receives input from the sensory organs.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The brain makes sense out of the input from the sensory organs.

Bottom-up processing

analysis of a sensation that begins with sensory receptors (from basic level up to more complex)

Top-down processing

analysis of a sensation that is guided by higher-level mental processes (our knowledge influences how we interpret stimuli)

Absolute threshold

the minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

\-Stimuli below this threshold are called subliminal

Difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli needed to detect a difference between them 50% of the time

Weber's Law

to be perceived as different, the intensity of two stimuli must vary by a constant proportion of the intensity of the original stimulus

* As intensity increases, we get less sensitive to change

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a result of constant or recurring stimuli

The Six Senses

1. Vision (sight) = electromagnetic waves of photons
2. Audition (hearing) = pressure waves
3. Gustation (taste) = chemicals
4. Olfaction (smell) = chemicals
5. Tactition (skin senses) = touch, pressure, temp, & pain
6. Proprioception = body position, movement, & balance

* Kinesthesia = receptors in muscles and joints
* Vestibular = head and body orientation (fluid in ears)

Pain Circuit

the collection of signals that travel up to the spinal cord through small nerve fibers which conduct pain signals to the brain.

Consciousness

monitoring and controlling ourselves and our environment

Involves

* Alertness
* Self-awareness
* Control

Selective Attention

Focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Circadian Rhythm

the body's natural 24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness

Sleep Stages

the four distinct patterns of brain waves and muscle activity that are associated with different types of sleep

Sleep cycles

the patterns of shifting through all of the sleep stages over the course of the night

Sleep Loss Effects

\-suppression of immune cell production \n -increased production of fat cells \n -increased inflammation

Dreams

the stream of images, actions, and feelings experienced while in REM sleep

Why do we dream?

\-wish-fulfillment \n -reinforces memories \n -physiological function \n -problem solving

Learning

a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior due to experience

Classical Conditioning

focuses on reflexive behaviors \n \n -a learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with another stimulus (US) through repeated pairing with that stimulus (NS=CS)

Operant Conditioning

focuses on voluntary behaviors \n \n - a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened by reinforcement and diminished by punishment

Acquisition

the initial stage of learning or conditioning

Extinction

when the US and CS stop appearing together

Discrimination

the ability to distinguish between stimuli

Generalization

a phenomenon in which after a response has been conditioned with one stimulus, similar stimuli can elicit the same response

Shaping

Reward successive approximations of desired behavior

Ratio vs. Interval

Ratio is after a number of behaviors while Interval is after an amount of time

Fixed vs. Variable

Fixed is certain while Variable is random

Cognitive Learning

refers to acquiring new information mentally rather than by direct experience

* Observing events and the behaviors of others
* Using language to acquire information about
events experienced by others

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information and skills

Recall

like"fill-in-the-blanks." You retrieve info previously learned and unconsciously stored.

Recognition

a form of "multiple choice." You identify which stimuli match your stored information

Relearning

a measure of how much less work it takes you to learn information you had studied before even if you don't recall having seen the info before.

How does memory work?

1. Encoding: the information gets into our
brains in a way that allows it to be stored
2. Storage: the information is held in a way that
allows it to later be retrieved
3. Retrieval: reactivating and recalling
information, producing it in a form similar to
what was encoded

Automatic processing

Some information seems to go straight from sensory experience into long-term memory

Sensory Memory

the immediate, brief recording of sensory information before it is processed into short-term or long-term memory.