Pe - Applied anatomy and physiology

Which bone is at the head

cranium

Which bone is at the neck

vertebrae

Which bone is at the shoulder

scapula

Which bones are at the chest

ribs and sternum

Which bones are at the elbow

humerus, radius and ulna

Which bones are at the hip

pelvis and femur

Which bones are at the knee

femur, tibia and patella

Which bones are at the ankle

tibia, fibula and talus

How does the skeletal system provide a framework for movement

- the skeletal system allows movement at a joint
- the shape and type of the bones determine the amount of movement
- flat bones protect vital organs
- the different joint types allow different types of movement - - the skeleton provides a point of
attachment for muscles – when muscles
contract they pull the bone

What do short bones enable

finer controlled movements

What do long bones enable

gross movement

What are the functions of the skeleton

- support
- protection of vital organs by flat bones
- movement
- structural shape and points for attachment
- mineral storage
- blood cell production

What is the role of a tendon

to attach muscles to bones

What are the parts of a synovial joint

- synovial membrane
- synovial fluid
- joint capsule
- bursae
- cartilage
- ligaments

Which joints in the body are examples of hinge joints

- elbow
- knee
- ankle

Which joints in the body are ball and socket joints

- hip
- shoulder

What is flexion

- a bending movement
- occurs when the angle between the articulating bones is decreased
- bicep contracts
- triceps relax

What is extension

- a straightening movement
- occurs when the angle between articulating bones is increased
- bicep relax
- triceps contract

Where do flexion and extension happen

- shoulder
- elbow
- hip
- knee

Definition of abduction

movement away from the midline of the body

Definition of adduction

movement towards the midline of the body

Where do abduction and adduction happen

at the shoulder

Definition of rotation

where the limb moves in a circular movement around a fixed joint towards or away from the midline of the body

Where does rotation happen

at the shoulder

Definition of circumduction

- where the limb moves in a circle
- a circular motion around a joint

Where does circumduction happen

at the shoulder

What is plantar flexion

pointing of toes

What is dorsiflexion

the foot moves toward the shin as if you are pulling your toes up

Where does plantar flexion and dorsi flexion happen

at the ankle

Features that assist gaseous exchange

* large surface area of alveoli
* moist thin walls (one cell thick)
* short distance for diffusion (short diffusion pathway)
* lots of capillaries
* large blood supply
* movement of gas from high concentration to low concentration

Where do arteries carry blood

away from the heart

What blood do most arteries carry

oxygenated blood

What is the structure of arteries

* thick muscular walls due to carrying deoxygenated blood away from the heart quickly
* under high pressure
* small internal diameter to force the blood (LUMEN)

Which artery is different to the rest

the exception is the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs

What is the unique feature of veins

* they have valves
* this is because the blood must flow in one direction only, against gravity in most cases, back to the heart

Where do veins carry blood

VIA or into the heart

What blood do veins carry

deoxygenated blood

What is the structure of veins

* thinner walls with larger internal diameter (LUMEN) compared to arteries
* contain valves to make sure the blood travels at lower pressure
* valves prevent the backflow of blood

What vein is different to the rest

the exception is the pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

What are the long-term effects of exercising

* body shape may change
* improvements in specific components of fitness
* build muscle strength
* improve muscular endurance
* improve speed
* improve suppleness
* build cardio vascular endurance
* improve stamina
* increase in the size of the heart (hypertrophy)
* lower resting heart rate (bradycardia)

What is the agonist

* the prime mover
* it contracts, pulling on the bone to cause movement

What is the antagonist

it relaxes so it does not impede the movement

What is an isotonic contraction

when muscles change length as they contract

What are the two types of isotonic contractions

concentric or eccentric

What is an isotonic concentric contraction

the muscles shorten as they contract

What is an isotonic eccentric contraction

the muscles lengthen as they contract

What are isometric contractions

when the muscles stay the same length as they contract

What are capillaries

microscopic blood vessels

What do capillaries do

* connect veins to arteries
* deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated here

What is the structure of capillaries

* they are one cell thick
* they allow exchange of substances
* e.g oxygen and carbon dioxide cross into the tissue cell (muscles)

Vasodilation of arteries

widening of the internal diameter allowing increased blood flow, in turn increasing the oxygen supply

Vasoconstriction of arteries

* narrowing of the internal diameter to restrict the volume of blood travelling through
* arteries constrict during exercise so less blood goes to inactive areas

What is the vascular shunt

* the redistribution of blood during and after exercise
* at rest blood flow is concentrated towards the vital organs
* blood is diverted to the working muscles during exercise

What is aerobic exercise/respiration

* respiration in the presence of oxygen
* the body produces energy with the use of oxygen and glucose
* continuous ‘steady rate’ exercise is performed aerobically
* the body also produces carbon dioxide and water

What is anaerobic exercise/respiration

* respiration in the absence of oxygen
* the body produces energy with the use of glucose
* short intense exercise is performed anaerobically
* the body also produces lactic acid

Key parts in the pathway of air

* mouth/nose
* trachea
* bronchi
* bronchioles
* alveoli
* lungs
* diaphragm

Definition of respiratory system

a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide

What is the primary organ of the respiratory system

the lungs

Role of the bronchioles

they carry air from the bronchi to the alveoli

What are the lungs

a pair of large spongy organs

Role of the trachea/windpipe

carries air from the mouth and nose to the lungs

Role of the bronchi

carry air from the trachea into the lungs

What are alveoli

* many tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs
* allow for rapid gaseous exchange

What is the diaphragm

the large muscle that controls the volume of gases in the lungs

What are the 9 steps to the pathway of air

1. air breathed in through nasal cavity/mouth
2. air passes through larynx
3. air travels down the trachea
4. air branches into two channels called bronchi
5. air travels into small branches in the lungs
6. air travels into small sacs called alveoli
7. gaseous exchange takes place
8. carbon dioxide travels from alveoli to bronchioles
9. carbon dioxide travels up the bronchi, trachea and nasal passage

What are the 4 steps to the mechanics of breathing for inspiration

1. the intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribs upwards and outwards causing the chest to expand
2. the diaphragm contracts. It pulls down and flattens out the floor of the rib cage
3. the lungs increase in size as the chest expands
4. the pressure inside our lungs falls as they expand. The higher pressure of air outside means air is now sucked into the lungs through the nose and mouth

What are the 4 steps to the mechanics of breathing for expiration

1. the intercostal muscles relax. The ribs move downwards and inwards under their own weight. The chest gets smaller
2. the diaphragm relaxes. It is pushed back into a domed position by the organs underneath it
3. the lungs decrease in size as the chest gets smaller. They are squeezed by the ribs and diaphragm
4. the pressure inside the lungs increases as they get smaller. The air pressure outside is now lower than in our lungs. Air is forced out of the lungs through the nose and mouth

What allows the lungs to expand more when inhaling during exercise

the pectorals and sternocleidomastoid

How do the abdominal muscles help expiration

the rib cage is pulled down quicker and therefore forces air out quicker due to the use of the abdominal muscles

What do changes of air pressure in the lungs cause

inhalation and exhalation of air

What are the mechanics of breathing for inspiration at rest

1. External intercostal muscles contract lifting and expanding chest.
2. Diaphragm contracts and flattens.

What are the mechanics of breathing for exhalation at rest

1. External intercostal muscles relax lowering chest
2. Diaphragm relaxes and domes
3. Passive process

What are the mechanics of breathing for inspiration during exercise

1. External intercostal muscles contract lifting and expanding chest.
2. Diaphragm contracts and flattens.
3. Sternocleidomastoid and Pectorals contract expanding thoracic cavity more

What are the mechanics of breathing for exhalation during exercise

1. External intercostal muscles relax lowering chest
2. Diaphragm relaxes and domes
3. Internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles contract pulling down and in rib cage more forcibly.
4. Active process

What is the equation for cardiac output

cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

What is heart rate

the number of times the heart beats per minute

What is anticipatory response/rise

* the heart rate usually increases before activity because of the expectation of exercise
* caused by the release of the hormone adrenaline

What is resting heart rate

the number of times the heart beats per minute when you are not exercising. (measured in bpm)

How is maximum heart rate calculated

it is worked out using the following equation 220 - age

What is working heart rate

the number of times the heart beats per minute after a period of exercise. (measured in bpm)

What is recovery heart rate

the amount of time it takes for the heart to recovery from working heart rate to resting heart rate (measured in minutes)

What is stroke volume

the volume of blood that leaves the heart (left Ventricle) during each contraction

How can stroke volume be increased

by the heart contracting with **more force** and pushing more blood out with each beat

How much does the volume of blood ejected from the L/R ventricle increase

* approximately 60/70ml (F/M) at **rest**
* up to 120/140ml (F/M) at maximal exercise

What is cardiac output

the volume of blood that the heart is able to pump out per minute

What is the tidal volume

the amount of air breathed in with each normal breath. The average tidal volume is 0.5 litres (500 ml

What is the inspiratory reserve volume

the maximum amount of additional air that can be taken into the lungs after a normal breath

What is the expiratory reserve volume

the maximum amount of additional air that can be forced out of the lungs after a normal breath

What is the residula volume

the amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal out breath. This air helps to keep the lungs partially inflated to protect the microscopic structures from being damaged

What is the aerobic training zone

60-80% of maximal heart rate

What is the anaerobic training zone

80-90% of maximal heart rate

Name 13 muscles in the body

* latissimus dorsi
* deltoid
* rotator cuffs
* pectorals
* biceps
* triceps
* abdominals
* hip flexors
* gluteals
* hamstring group
* quadricept group
* gastrocnemius
* tibialis anterior

Where does gaseous exchange occur

at the alveoli in the lungs

What does haemoglobin combine with during gaseous exchange

* oxygen combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin
* haemoglobin can carry carbon dioxide

What are the parts of the heart

* right atrium
* right ventricle
* left atrium
* left ventricle
* vena cava
* pulmonary artery
* aorta

Function of the right atrium

an upper chamber receiving de-oxygenated blood

Function of the right ventricle

a lower chamber containing de-oxygenated

Function of the left atrium

an upper chamber receiving oxygenated blood from the lungs

Function of the left ventricle

a lower chamber containing oxygenated blood

Function of the vena cava

supplies deoxygenated blood from the body, delivering it to the heart