AP Psych - Cognition

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Charles Spearman

used and developed factor analysis (identifies clusters of related items), came up with the idea of a general intelligence (g factor)

general intelligence (g)

a general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Howard Gardner

He said abilities are best classified into 8 intelligence including spatial, musical, logical-mathematical, linguistic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and bodily-kinesthetic.

savant syndrome

condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

analytic intelligence

(academic-problem-solving)

traditional intelligence traits, part of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

creative intelligence

reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas, part of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

practical intelligence

required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist, part of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

emotional (social) intelligence

perceiving emotions, understanding emotions, managing emotions, using emotions

mental age (MA)

an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

performance subtest

on the WAIS test, include: spatial relations, perceptual skills, and speed of thinking

verbal subtest

on the WAIS test, include: language based and abstract cognitive skills

what IQ measures

a person's cognitive ability compared to population at large

achievement test

a test designed to asses what a person has learned or aquired. EX: Driver test

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance, aptitude is the capacity to learn

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group (Representative sample)

68%

Amount of people with IQs between 85 and 115 (one SD of the mean)

95%

Amount of people with IQs between 70 and 130 (two SD of the mean). Above 130 = genius, below 70 = intellectual disability

The Flynn Effect

intelligence scores have risen throughout the last 100 years or so (due to environment)

reliability

when it yields consistant results

split- half reliability

dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are

test-retest reliability

using the same test on two occasions to measure consitency

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to meaure

predictive validity

the extent to which test score forecasts future behaviors or results

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledges reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests, increases with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems, decreases with age

intellectual disability

limited mental ability

High Intelligence

typically 130 IQ and above

percentile rank

percentage of scores that fall below a given score

heritability

proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

This theory holds that there are three types of intelligence.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Chronological age (CA)

The number of years since the individual's birth. Actual Age.

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

stereotype lift

awareness of positive expectations can actually improve performance on tasks

prototype

a mental image or best example of a concept

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that have similar characteristics

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Takes time.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

sunk cost fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

perceptual set

a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

Gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

proximity

objects that are near/close to eachother are in a group.

similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

binocular depth cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

texture gradient

the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

normal bell curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of iformation

Cognition

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Encoding

Processing information into the memory system

Storage

Retention of encoded information.

Retrieval

Pulling information out of memory storage (i.e. out of long term memory and into working memory).

Sensory memory

The immediate and brief recording of sensory information into the memory system.

Short-term memory

Activate memory that holds about 7 (plus or minus) items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Parellel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency or of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in the working memory or store it in long-term memory.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention.

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall the last and first items in a list.

Visual encoding

The encoding of picture images.

Acoustic encoding

The encoding of sound.

Semantic encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Imagery

Creating mental pictures.

Mnemoics

Memory aids.

Chunking

The grouping of information into familiar, meaningful units.