Western Civ. Final

Neolithic Revolution

The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal domestication leading to permanent villages, population growth, and the rise of early civilizations. Around 10,000-8,000 BCE (Neolithic Era)

Mesopotamia

The "Land Between the Rivers" — located between the Tigris and Euphrates. Birthplace of Sumerian city-states, irrigation systems, and writing. Emerged around 3500 BCE in the Fertile Crescent (modern Iraq)

Abraham

Patriarch of the Hebrew people who made a covenant with God promising land (Canaan) and descendants. Considered the founder of monotheism in the Hebrew tradition. His covenant introduced the idea of a personal relationship with one God. c. 2000-1800 BCE

Israel

The Northern Kingdom after Israel split following Solomon's death. Fell to the Assyrians in 722 BCE, resulting in the "Ten Lost Tribes." c. 930-722 BCE

Judah

The Southern Kingdom, centered in Jerusalem. Preserved the Davidic dynasty and many Hebrew traditions. Conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, leading to the Babylonian Captivity, a major test of faith and identity. c. 930-586 BCE

Monotheism

The belief in one all-powerful, just, and personal God. Marked a major break from the polytheism of surrounding cultures. Became the foundation for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Fully developed by c. 1000 BCE among the Hebrews.

Hellenes

The collective name the Greeks used for themselves. Marked the emergence of a shared Greek identity after centuries of isolation. United by language, religion, and culture despite political fragmentation. Term used from c. 800 BCE onward

Archaic Period

Period of recovery and innovation following the Dark Age; saw the rise of city-states (poleis), colonization, and early democracy. Foundations of Greek art, politics, and philosophy. Development of the alphabet, coinage, and citizen armies (hoplites). c. 800-500 BCE

Polis

The Greek city-state, a political and social community centered around citizenship. Comprised of asty (urban center) and khora (rural region). Fundamental unit of Greek civilization. Fostered political experimentation (democracy, oligarchy). Encouraged loyalty to one's city over broader empire. Fully developed by c. 700 BCE

Classical Period

The high point of Greek civilization following the Persian Wars and ending with the death of Alexander the Great. Period of artistic, political, and intellectual achievement, especially in Athens. Saw the rise of democracy, philosophy, and idealized art and architecture. 480-323 BCE

Sophists

Traveling teachers who taught rhetoric, logic, and persuasive argument for pay. Helped citizens participate in Athenian democracy. Prominent c. 450-400 BCE

Plato

Student of Socrates; philosopher who founded the Academy and wrote The Republic, Symposium, Phaedo. Introduced the Theory of Forms—eternal ideals behind material reality. Advanced political philosophy and epistemology. c. 427-347 BCE

Aristotle

Student of Plato; philosopher and scientist who tutored Alexander the Great. Developed logic, biology, ethics, and political theory. Rejected Plato's abstract Forms; emphasized empirical observation. 384-322 BCE

Peloponnesian War

Civil war between Athens (Delian League) and Sparta (Peloponnesian League) for control of Greece. Ended Athens's Golden Age; Sparta briefly dominated. Weakened all Greece, paving the way for Macedonian conquest. 431-404 BCE

Philip II of Macedon

King who united Greek city-states under Macedonian rule through diplomacy and conquest. Created the Macedonian phalanx and centralized Greece. Expanded Greek influence northward and redefined Greek unity. r. 359-336 BCE

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who conquered the Persian Empire, Egypt, and parts of India. Son of Phillip II. Ambitious and young, crusades were done in his early 20s. Created the largest empire in the ancient world. Spread Greek culture, language, and ideas (Hellenism). Blended Greek, Persian, and Egyptian influences into a cosmopolitan world. r. 336-323 BCE

Hellenistic Period

Era following Alexander's death until Roman conquest. Greek culture spread across Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Asia. Major centers: Alexandria, Pergamon, Antioch. Advanced in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. 323-30 BCE

Republic

A system where citizens elect representatives and officials govern under law. Foundation of Roman political tradition. Combined monarchy (consuls), aristocracy (Senate), and democracy (assemblies). Established 509 BCE after overthrow of monarchy.

Punic Wars (Hannibal)

Three wars between Rome and Carthage for Mediterranean dominance. Rome's victory made it the leading power in the western Mediterranean. Hannibal's campaign (Second Punic War) nearly destroyed Rome but inspired resilience. 264-146 BCE

Octavian (Augustus)

Caesar's adopted son; victor of civil wars; first Roman emperor. Established the Principate. Reformer of army, finances Began the Pax Romana, two centuries of peace and prosperity. 63 BCE-14 CE

Homer

Ancient Greek poet, author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, foundational works of Western literature. His narratives explore themes of heroism, fate, and the struggles of human existence.

Apostolic succession

The belief that the authority of Christian leaders comes through an unbroken line of ordinations tracing back to the apostles. This concept mattered because it gave legitimacy to bishops and ensured continuity of teaching. It reinforced unity and doctrinal authority in the early Church.

Popes (bishops of Rome)

The bishop of Rome came to be regarded as the leading Christian authority because of Rome’s association with the apostles Peter and Paul. Over time, this role evolved into the papacy. The pope became the central leader of the Western Church.

Martyrs

Christians who were executed for refusing to renounce their faith. Their deaths were seen as powerful witnesses to the truth of Christianity. Martyr stories strengthened Christian identity and encouraged conversion.

“Great Persecution”

The final and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire under Emperor Diocletian (303–311 CE). Churches were destroyed and Christians imprisoned or executed. It failed to stop Christianity and instead showed its strength and organization.

Edict of Milan (313)

A decree issued by Constantine granting legal tolerance to Christianity. It ended official persecution and restored Christian property. This allowed Christianity to grow openly within the Roman Empire.

Theodosius Roman

emperor who made Christianity the official religion of the empire in the late 4th century. He restricted pagan practices and supported Church authority. His reign firmly tied Christianity to imperial power.

Canon of Scripture

The official list of books accepted as the Christian Bible. Early Christians debated which texts were authoritative to preserve correct teaching. The canon helped unify belief and practice across the Church.

Vulgate Bible

The Latin translation of the Bible completed by St. Jerome in the late 4th century. It became the standard Bible of Western Christianity. The Vulgate shaped medieval theology and education.

Arius

A Christian priest who taught that Jesus was created by God and not fully divine. His teachings caused widespread controversy in the early Church. This debate led to the Council of Nicaea.

Council of Nicaea

The first major Church council held in 325 CE. It condemned Arianism and affirmed that Christ was fully divine. The council produced the Nicene Creed.

Patristic Period

The early era of Christianity when Church Fathers developed core doctrines. Lasted roughly from the 2nd to 7th centuries CE. This period shaped Christian theology and biblical interpretation.

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan

A powerful 4th-century bishop who defended Church authority over emperors. He influenced Christian worship and theology. Ambrose also played a key role in Augustine’s conversion.

St. Jerome

A Christian scholar best known for translating the Bible into Latin. He emphasized careful study of Scripture. His work influenced Western Christianity for centuries.

St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo

One of the most influential Christian theologians of late antiquity. He wrote about sin, grace, and salvation. His ideas shaped medieval and modern Christianity.

Pope Gregory I

Pope from 590–604 CE who strengthened papal authority. He promoted missionary work and Church organization. Gregory helped define the medieval papacy.

Monks

Christians who withdrew from society to live lives of prayer and discipline. Monasticism preserved learning and stability after Rome’s fall. Monks shaped Christian spirituality.

St. Anthony of Egypt

A 3rd–4th century hermit considered the founder of Christian monasticism. He lived in the desert practicing extreme asceticism. His example inspired monastic movements.

Eremitic ideal

The belief that holiness is best achieved through solitary religious life. Practiced by desert hermits like St. Anthony. Emphasized prayer, isolation, and self-discipline.

Pachomius

A 4th-century monk who organized the first communal monasteries. He believed monks should live and work together. His system made monastic life sustainable.

Cenobitic life

Monastic life lived in a community rather than in isolation. Monks shared prayer, labor, and resources. This form became the dominant model of monasticism.

Rule of Benedict

A guide for monastic life written in the 6th century by Benedict of Nursia. Emphasized balance, obedience, and routine. Became the foundation of Western monasticism.

Vandal kingdom

A Germanic kingdom established in North Africa after the Vandals crossed into Roman territory. They captured Carthage in 439 CE and controlled important Mediterranean trade routes. Their rule showed how former Roman provinces became independent barbarian states.

Ostrogothic kingdom

A Germanic kingdom established in Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It preserved many Roman institutions while being ruled by a Gothic elite. The kingdom represented an attempt to blend Roman administration with barbarian leadership.

Theodoric

King of the Ostrogoths who ruled Italy from 493–526 CE. He maintained Roman laws, bureaucracy, and culture while governing as a Germanic ruler. His reign brought relative stability to post-Roman Italy.

Visigothic kingdom

A Germanic kingdom founded in Gaul and later centered in Spain. It developed its own laws and administration after the collapse of Roman authority. The Visigoths played a key role in shaping medieval Iberian society.

Lombards

A Germanic people who invaded and settled much of Italy in the late 6th century. They weakened Byzantine control and established regional duchies. Their presence contributed to Italy’s long political fragmentation.

Anglo-Saxons

Germanic peoples (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) who migrated to Britain after Roman withdrawal. They formed small kingdoms and introduced Germanic culture and language. Their settlement laid the foundation for medieval England.

Heptarchy

The term used to describe the seven main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in early medieval England. These kingdoms competed for power and influence. The Heptarchy shaped early English political development.

Franks

A powerful Germanic people who settled in Gaul and built one of the most successful post-Roman kingdoms. They maintained close ties with the Christian Church. The Franks laid the foundations for modern France.

Merovingians

The first ruling dynasty of the Frankish kingdom. They gained legitimacy through military success and conversion to Christianity. Their rule marked the early development of medieval monarchy.

Clovis

King of the Franks who united Frankish tribes under one ruler. He converted to Christianity around 496 CE, gaining support from the Church. His reign strengthened the alliance between the Franks and Roman Christianity.

Carolingians

The Frankish dynasty that replaced the Merovingians. They expanded territory and strengthened royal authority. The dynasty is best known for Charlemagne and the Carolingian Renaissance.

Venerable Bede

An Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar from Northumbria. He wrote Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the main source for early English history. His work shaped medieval historical writing and Christian identity in England.

Muhammad (570–632), Mecca

Founder of Islam, born in Mecca, who Muslims believe received revelations from God (Allah). These revelations formed the Quran. His leadership united the Arabian Peninsula under a new religious and political community.

Medinah

City to which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca. It became the first Islamic community and political center. Medinah marked the transition of Islam from a persecuted movement to an organized society.

Hijra, 622

The migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medinah. This event marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. It was significant because it established Islam as a political and religious force.

Quran

The holy book of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad. It provides religious law, moral guidance, and teachings. The Quran became the foundation of Islamic belief and practice.

al-Islam

The Arabic term meaning “submission” to the will of God. It reflects the core belief of Islam that humans should submit fully to Allah. The concept emphasizes obedience, faith, and moral responsibility.

“Five Pillars of Islam”

The five basic acts of worship required of all Muslims: faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage. They structure daily religious life and community identity. These practices unify Muslims worldwide.

Caliphs

Successors to Muhammad who led the Islamic community after his death. They held both political and religious authority. The early caliphs oversaw rapid Islamic expansion.

Umayyad dynasty

The first major Islamic dynasty, ruling from Damascus. Expanded the Islamic empire across North Africa, Spain, and the Middle East. Their rule established Arabic as the empire’s administrative language.

Abbasids

Islamic dynasty that overthrew the Umayyads and ruled from Baghdad. Known for supporting learning, science, and culture. Their reign marked the Islamic Golden Age.

Orthodox Christians

Christians who accepted the decisions of major Church councils and upheld the doctrine of Christ’s dual nature. They were dominant in the Byzantine Empire. Their beliefs aligned with imperial Christianity.

Monophysite Christians

Christians who believed Christ had a single divine nature rather than both human and divine. They rejected the Council of Chalcedon. This belief caused religious divisions within the Byzantine Empire.

Justinian

Byzantine emperor who ruled from 527–565 CE. He sought to restore Roman greatness through military conquest, law reform, and architecture. His reign shaped Byzantine law and culture.

Corpus Juris Civilis

The comprehensive code of Roman law compiled under Justinian. It preserved Roman legal principles. The code later influenced European legal systems.

Hagia Sophia

A massive church built in Constantinople under Justinian. It symbolized Byzantine wealth, power, and Christian devotion. Later converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest.

Icons

Religious images of Christ, Mary, and saints used in Christian worship. Especially important in Eastern Christianity. Icon use sparked controversy during the Byzantine Iconoclasm.