pyschology

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Associative learning

Learning that two events occur together (stimulus–stimulus or behavior–consequence).

Reflexes

Automatic, simple responses to stimuli.

Instincts

Complex, innate behavioral patterns.

Classical conditioning

Learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that produces a natural response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Natural, unlearned reaction to a UCS.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially produces no response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Higher-order conditioning

When a new neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS.

Acquisition

Initial learning of the CS–CR association.

Extinction

Weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR.

Stimulus discrimination

Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli similar to the CS.

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences that increase or decrease behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

Negative punishment

Taking away something pleasant to decrease behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing small steps toward a target behavior.

Primary reinforcer

Naturally rewarding (e.g., food, water).

Secondary reinforcer

Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, praise).

Continuous reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Rewarding behavior sometimes.

Fixed interval schedule

Reward after a predictable amount of time.

Variable interval schedule

Reward after unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reward after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

Reward after an unpredictable number of responses.

Observational learning

Learning by watching others.

Models

People whose behavior is observed and imitated.

Vicarious reinforcement

Seeing someone else get rewarded, increasing likelihood of imitation.

Vicarious punishment

Seeing someone else get punished, decreasing likelihood of imitation.

Memory

Processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Encoding

Transforming information into a form the brain can store.

Storage

Retention of encoded information.

Retrieval

Bringing stored information into awareness.

Automatic processing

Encoding without conscious effort.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and work.

Semantic encoding

Encoding meaning.

Visual encoding

Encoding images.

Acoustic encoding

Encoding sounds.

Sensory memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

Short-term memory

Limited-capacity memory lasting about 20 seconds.

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of information.

Explicit memory

Conscious memories of facts and events.

Implicit memory

Unconscious memories such as skills and conditioned responses.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying information you’ve previously learned.

Relearning

Learning something faster the second time.

Equipotentiality hypothesis

All areas of cortex can potentially store memories.

HSAM (highly superior autobiographical memory)

Condition where people recall personal events with extreme accuracy.

Amygdala

Brain area for emotional memories and fear.

Hippocampus

Forms new explicit memories.

Cerebellum

Forms implicit memories and conditioned responses.

Prefrontal cortex

Working memory and decision-making.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that enable communication and memory formation.

Flashbulb memory

Vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.

False memory

Inaccurate memory created through reconstruction.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of past memories.

Transience

Memory fades over time.

Absentmindedness

Lapses in attention leading to forgetting.

Blocking

Temporary inability to retrieve information.

Misattribution

Confusing the source of information.

Suggestibility

Misleading information alters memory.

Bias

Personal beliefs distort memory.

Persistence

Unwanted memories that keep returning.

Forgetting

Failure to retrieve stored info.

Encoding failure

Information never properly entered memory.

Proactive interference

Old information disrupts new learning.

Retroactive interference

New information disrupts old learning.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units.

Self-reference effect

Remembering information better when related to oneself.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it in memory.

Distributed practice

Studying spaced over time improves retention.

Consciousness

Awareness of yourself and your environment.

Meta-analysis

Statistical combination of many research studies.

Evolutionary psychology

Examines behavior through evolutionary adaptation.

Biological rhythms

Regular cycles in physiological processes.

Circadian rhythm

24-hour biological clock for sleep/wake cycles.

Homeostasis

Body’s tendency to maintain internal balance.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates sleep cycles.

Sleep debt

Chronic lack of sleep leading to impaired functioning.

Sleep rebound

Making up for lost sleep, especially REM and deep sleep.

REM sleep

Dreaming stage with high brain activity and muscle paralysis.

Stage 1 sleep

Light sleep with drifting brain waves.

Stage 2 sleep

Deeper sleep with sleep spindles.

Stage 3 sleep

Deep, slow-wave sleep.

Dreams

Sequences of images, emotions, and thoughts during sleep.

Activation-synthesis theory

Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Information-processing theory

Dreams help organize and consolidate memories.

Lucid dreams

Dreams in which the dreamer is aware and can control them.

Depressant

Drug that slows nervous system activity.

Stimulant

Drug that increases nervous system activity.

Opioid

Drug for pain relief that produces euphoria.

Hallucinogen

Drug that alters perception and sensory experiences.

Dependence

Needing a drug to function normally.

Tolerance

Needing more of a drug to get the same effect.