Studied by 0 peopleMotivation
the factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, & persistence of behavior
Biological Factors
ex: food, water, sleep, sex, temperature, physiological factors (drugs or hormones)
"internal"
Social Factors
For what?: approval of others, acceptance, fitting in/standing out
By whom: parents/siblings, friends, teammates, teachers, media,
culture/race/religion, etc."external"
Cognitive Factors
ex: beliefs, thoughts, expectations & views of yourself & of the world, curiosity, intellectual growth, etc. "internal"
Emotional Factors
ex: love, happiness, anger, fear, jealousy "internal"
Primary Drives/Motives
biological need; directly related to survival (ex: food, water, oxygen, sleep, etc.)
Secondary Drives/Motives
acquired drives that are culturally determined/learned (ex: obtaining money, intimacy, social approval, etc.)
Drive Theory (AKA Drive Reduction Theory)
We are motivated to maintain homeostasis (balance)
(this theory best explains biological needs)
Homeostasis
state of physiological equilibrium or stability
Drive
internal state of tension that motivates an organism to behave in a certain way in order to restore homeostasis
Incentive Theory
Incentive = an external goal
We are motivated to obtain desirable stimuli or avoid negative stimuli
ex: money, promotion, food, approval, a good grade, etc
Evolutionary/Instinct Theory
Based on survival, natural selection; reproductive capacity; automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behaviors
ex: birds fly south for the winter
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to maintain their optimal level of arousal (which is different for everyone)
-If over-aroused (above your optimal level) = motivated to reduce your level of arousal.
-If under-aroused (lower than your optimal level) = motivated to increase your arousal level.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
people are motivated to fulfill certain needs that are arranged in a hierarchy; the lower needs on the hierarchy must be fulfilled before someone can be motivated by the next need on the hierarchy.
Lateral Hypothalamus
Feeding center; "ON" switch
Ventromedial Hypothalamus/Nucleus
Satiety center; "OFF" switch
Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)
controls the selection of specific foods & blood sugar levels (ever wonder why you choose the foods you do?!)
Glucose
Food is converted into glucose (simple sugar) and provides a source of energy. low levels = hungry
Insulin
secreted by pancreas; reduces appetite
Ghrelin
released by empty stomach = stimulates appetite; causes stomach contractions
CCK (Cholecystokinin)
delivers satiety (full) signals to the brain
Leptin
long-term regulation of hunger,
high leptin = high fat storage; less hunger
Platability
tastes good = eat more
Quantity available
more food = eat more
Variety available
increased variety = eat more
Presence of others
more people = eat more
Cultural factors
Learned preferences
BMI (Body Mass Index)
weight divided by height²
Set Point Theory
Internal thermostat that fights to maintain body weight within a certain range (maintained by food intake & metabolism)
*unique to each individual; this is the body’s “normal” weight
Mindset (Carol Dweck) - Fixed Mindset
Belief that your basic qualities, like your intelligence or talent, are simply fixed traits
Mindset (Carol Dweck) - Growth Mindset
Belief that your most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work—brains and talent are just the starting point (love of learning & resilience are essential)
Need for Achievement
need for personal accomplishment
Characteristics of a High Need for Achievement
1. Enjoy the process of struggling for achievement
2. Feel intense satisfaction when achievement is reached
3. Set challenging- but realistic- goals
4. Take risks & not upset by failure
5. Seek out constructive criticism from competent sources
6. Preoccupied with performance & level of ability
7. Select tasks with clear outcomes
Characteristics of a Low Need for Achievement
1. Success produces feelings of relief at having avoided failure
2. Prefer tasks that ensure success
3. Quit in response to failure
4. Do not seek out criticism
Need for Affiliation
need to belong to and identify with a group
Need for Approval
need to have other people think highly of you
Intrinsic Motivation
motivation/desire for personal satisfaction, growth, purpose, mastery or autonomy
Extrinsic Motivation
desire to attain external rewards
Overjustification effect
Giving a reward for an already desired behavior will reduce one's aspiration to engage in that behavior (when introducing extrinsic rewards diminishes intrinsic motivation)
Elements of Emotion
Cognitive Component (Appraisal), Physiological Component,
Behavioral Component (Expression)
Appraisal* (Cognitive Appraisal)
subjective/personal interpretation of an external event/situation
Affective forecasting
efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events
Pyramidal Motor System
Voluntary muscle movement
Extrapyramidal Motor System
Involuntary muscle movement
Facial Feedback Hypothesis/Effect
the ability of facial muscles to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
6 Main Universal Emotions
Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger + contempt
Social Referencing
Looking to others to guide emotional reactions
Display rules
Norms that regulate the appropriate (facial & behavior) expression of emotions. *Internalized as a function of an individual’s culture, gender or family background
James-Lange Theory
The physical reactions of the body determine what emotion we experience. (Each emotion has a specific physical reaction)
Cannon-Bard Theory
The brain determines what emotion we experience. The physical reaction & emotion occur simultaneously.
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)
The physical reactions PLUS our appraisal of the situation determine what emotion we experience
Transferred excitation (Misattribution of arousal)
When arousal from one activity carries over to an independent emotional situation.
Biopsychosocial model/perspective
The interaction of biological, physiological, & sociocultural factors on mental health.
Stress
Negative physical and psychological responses to disruptions in our environment, or threat of disruption (actual or perceived).
Eustress
Good stress (Motivational, increases performance, energizing, etc…)
Distress
Bad stress (Colloquial stress: Unpleasant, decreases performance, struggle, etc…)
Primary appraisal (Does the stressor impact me, and how much?)
an initial evaluation of whether an event is:
irrelevant to you
relevant, but not threatening
relevant and stressful
Secondary appraisal (How am I going to deal with the stressor?)
If you appraise the situation as being stressful, then the secondary appraisal is the evaluation of your coping resources and options for dealing with the stress.
Acute stressors
threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint
Chronic stressors
threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit
Approach-approach conflict
A choice must be made between two attractive/desirable goals.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
A choice must be made between two unattractive/undesirable goals.
Approach-avoidance conflict
A choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects
Multiple appraoch-avoidance conflict
A choice must be made when two or more alternatives are available and have both positive & negative aspects.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Looks at the relationship between an emotional reaction to a stressor (arousal) and the ability to cope with the stress (or performance in general).
the higher the stress/arousal, the more performance/coping is impaired
Amount of arousal needed/beneficial is also dependent on the type of task.
as task complexity increases, more arousal impairs performance.
Fight-or-flight Response
physiological reaction to threats in which the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans Selye
Focuses on the physiological responses to stress
Phase 1: Alarm
“Freeze”
* Initial shock of the stressor; short-lived
Fight-or-flight; sympathetic nervous system working hard
Phase 2: Resistance
“Fight or Flight”
Provides the energy we need to fight the stressor (prolonged).
Sympathetic nervous system engaged to help use resources to get us through the stressor (but not as much as alarm)
Phase 3: Exhaustion
*Continual depletion of energy resources = suppression of immune system = get sick
Ruminative Thinking
Continual interruption of thoughts; can’t get the stressor out of your head
Catastrophizing
Over-exaggerating the potential consequences of a stressor.
Cynical Hostility
suspiciousness, resentment, frequent anger, distrust of others
Heart Disease
Stress responses such as anger & hostility have been connected to heart disease
Type A personality characteristics
rigid organization, competitiveness, impatience & time urgency, and easily aroused to anger or hostility.
*Experience more stress & more prone to stress-related health problems
Type B personality
relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior
Social Support Network
Your family & friends who support you during times of stress; they provide an outlet for emotions, ideas, & reassurance, and even help confront/deal with the stressor
Optimism & Concientiousness
expectation that things will turn out well
Problem Focused
Focuses on the reducing stress by addressing source of the stress (dealing with the stressor itself) ex: confront it; make a plan; problem solve; evaluate pros & cons; seek support
Emotion Focused
Focuses on reducing the response (i.e. emotional arousal) to the stressor ex: keep yourself busy & take your mind off of it; pray; reappraise the stressor; escape/avoid it
Appraisal, Predictability, & Control
ou will experience less stress with increased predictability of the stressor and increased control over the stressor
Cognitive Restructuring
You will experience less stress if you change your interpretation of the stressor & your thoughts about the stressor
Note
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