Research Designs and Child Development Insights

Cross-sectional

Compares different age groups at one time. Strengths: Quick, easy, no attrition, no practice effects. Weaknesses: Can't track individual development over time; cohort effects confound results.

Longitudinal

Follows the same individuals over time. Strengths: Tracks developmental trends and individual differences. Weaknesses: Time-consuming, expensive, practice effects, selective attrition, cross-generational confounds.

Sequential

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal by following multiple cohorts over time. Strengths: Separates cohort vs. developmental effects, more efficient than pure longitudinal. Weaknesses: Still time-consuming/expensive, possible attrition/practice effects, limited generalizability.

Microgenetic

Intensive, short-term study during a time of change. Strengths: Reveals how and why changes occur. Weaknesses: Artificial setting, not generalizable, small sample, complex analysis.

Laboratory Analogue Experiments

Simulate real-life situations in controlled lab settings. Strengths: Allows for control, replication, and cause-effect conclusions. Weaknesses: May lack ecological validity; behavior may not reflect real life.

Informed consent

Clear explanation for participation.

Voluntary assent

Child agrees to participate (not just the parent).

Right to no harm

Protect from physical/psychological harm.

Right to withdraw

Child can leave the study at any time.

Common Behavioral Genetics Designs

Goal: Estimate how much genes vs. environment contribute to behavior.

Twin studies

Compare identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ) twins. - Identical twins share 100% of genes; fraternal share ~50%. - Greater similarity in MZ twins = higher heritability of trait.

Adoption studies

Compare adopted children to biological vs. adoptive parents. - Similarity to biological parents = genetic influence. - Similarity to adoptive parents = environmental influence.

Family studies

Compare traits across relatives with varying genetic closeness. - Help determine how shared genetics correlate with traits.

Passive gene-environment association

Parents provide both genes and environment. - Child does not influence the environment. - Example: parents with high verbal ability pass on genes and provide a language-rich home.

Evocative gene-environment association

Child's genetically influenced traits elicit responses from others. - Example: an active, sociable child may get more social engagement and attention from others.

Attachment Types

Insecure Avoidant (20%): Sociable with strangers, avoids or ignores parent, little distress when separated. Secure (65%): Uses parent as secure base, upset by separation, comforted by return. Insecure Resistant (15%): Little exploration, wary of strangers, distressed by separation, ambivalent upon return. Disorganized (5%): Confused about approaching/avoiding parent, dazed, fearful, frozen posture.

Stability of Attachment

Attachment quality is influenced by caregiving and environment; caregiving predicts attachment outcomes.

Quality of Attachment (Caregiving vs. Temperament)

Evidence - Kochanska: Quality caregiving (responsiveness, attentiveness) predicts attachment quality. - Van den Boom: Adapted parenting based on temperament leads to better outcomes.

Temperament Influence

Affects attachment indirectly through caregiving responses; not the direct cause.

Pride

Emotion of delight from achievements, possessions, or relationships.

Shame

Feeling discomfort from personal failure, not linked to concern for others.

Guilt

Involves remorse and desire to make reparations; linked to empathy.

Shame

About failure, guilt about actions affecting others.

Reflexive Smiles

Due to physical stimulation at birth.

Social Smiles

Directed toward people, emerge around 6-7 weeks.

Factors Influencing Smiling in Children

Social responsiveness of environment, gender differences (girls smile more than boys).

Identity Diffusion

No crisis or commitment; least mature.

Identity Foreclosure

Commitment without exploration; inflexible, authoritarian.

Identity Moratorium

Exploring but no commitment; anxious, intense.

Identity Achievement

Exploration and commitment; high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, and better outcomes.

Development of Religious Identity

Religious identity is stable during high school, influenced by social environment.

Consequences of Strong Religious Identity

Linked to better emotional regulation, fewer psychological issues, and better adult outcomes.

Effects of Divorce on Boys

Externalize distress (anger), more likely to fight with mothers, long-term behavioral problems.

Effects of Divorce on Girls

Internalize distress (anxiety), more likely to have long-term relationship and emotional issues.

Differences in Effects of Divorce

Girls may suffer more before divorce, boys more after.

Effects of Marital Conflict on Children

Emotional insecurity, aggression, depression, anxiety, and behavior problems.

Early vs. Later Conflict Impact

Early conflict impacts emotional attachment, later conflict increases aggression/depression.

Types of Children (Peer Statuses)

Popular: Most liked; Rejected: Many least liked; Neglected: Neither liked nor disliked; Controversial: Both liked and disliked; Average: Mixed nominations.

Stability of Rejected Children

Rejected children more stable in their peer status.

Parental Influence on Peer Relationships

Parents help by scheduling play dates, enrolling in activities, facilitating peer interactions.

Impact of Good Social Arrangers

Children of good social arrangers have more playmates, better peer relationships.

Cliques

Small groups based on friendships/interests (3-9 members); more important in early adolescence.

Crowds

Larger, stereotype-based groups (jocks, nerds); less emphasis in later adolescence.

Role of Schools in Social Development

Teaches academic knowledge, fosters cognitive and metacognitive growth.

Social Skills Curriculum

Involves informal curriculum—teaches citizenship, rules, and problem-solving.

Consequences of Being a Latchkey Child

Higher likelihood of antisocial behavior, poor grades, substance abuse, and early sexual behavior due to lack of adult supervision.

Effects of Smartphones and Social Media

Positive: Social connections, self-expression, identity exploration; Negative: Correlation with aggression, exposure to inappropriate content, cyberbullying.

Gender-Schema Theory

Children develop schemas about gender roles based on environment, parents, and peers.

Impact of Gender-Schema Theory

Schemas guide behavior, preferences, and interpretation of gender-related information.

Gender Intensification in Adolescence

Increased gender-typical behaviors due to social pressure and romantic interests.

Behavioral Shift in Adolescence

Girls become more emotionally expressive, boys more emotionally restricted.

Social Cognitive Theory

Children learn gender roles through observation and imitation of same-sex models.

Learning Mechanism of Gender Typing

Children construct gender-appropriate behaviors based on observed behaviors and cultural norms.