AP Psych Unit 11 - thinking problem-solving, decision making, and intelligence

cognition

the mental process involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge

executive functions

a set of cognitive processes that help us manage and coordinate our thoughts and actions and achieve goal-directed behavior.

metacognition

a complex process during which we examine how we are thinking

critical thinking

Thinking that goes beyond acquiring new information to develop opinions and beliefs about that information. “Healthy skepticism”

schemas

mental representations of a set of connected ideas. Schemas provide a framework for thinking

assimilation

allows us to make sense of new situations by relating them to prior experiences and their existing schemas without changing those schemas

accommodation

taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate that new information.

concepts

the mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair.

category hierarchy

the organizing and expansion of concepts to help with learning and retrieval.

prototype

a mental image of the best example of a specific concept or category

trial and error (mechanical solution)

problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

algorithms

which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. A rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem by using a formula. They work but can be impractical for certain problems.

heuristics

simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

availability heuristic

Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind. Vivid examples in the news often cause an availability heuristic.

representative(ness) heuristic

Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes or stereotypes the person holds in their mind.

fixation

An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional fixedness

mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was successful in the past.

functional fixedness

a tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.

priming

occurs when an individual's exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt, without any awareness of the connection

framing

Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed - how it is worded ot presented.

cognitive bias

Ways of thinking that veer people away from strictly rational and objective conclusions.

• They are consistent ways that people make faulty assumptions about other people and situations.

the gambler’s fallacy

a cognitive bias that occurs when people believe that the outcomes of random events are influenced by previous outcomes, even when they are independent.

sunk cost fallacy

a cognitive bias when people continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or endeavor because they have already invested significant resources

remote associates test

a test of creative potential. It was developed by Martha Mednick in 1962 and has since been considered as a valid measure of creativity.

• Each RAT question presents three cue words that are linked by a fourth word, which is the correct answer.

creativity

the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

convergent thinking

type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, using previous knowledge and logic.

divergent thinking

type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities.

intelligence

the mental quality to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations.

• Psychologists debate whether intelligence is a single ability or multiple abilities, and some disagree on what its characteristics are

nature vs nurture & heritability

the extent to which intelligence test score variation within a group can be attributed to genetic variation

achievement tests

intended to reflect what you have already learned

• AP Tests

aptitude tests

intended to predict what you will be able to learn

• SATs are designed to predict your ability to do university level work.

general intelligence (g)

we have one general intelligence “g” that lies at the heart of all of our intelligent behavior and is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related variables.

fluid intelligence

logical/analytical thinking

• diminishes over time

crystallized intelligence

learned facts, step-by-step practical knowledge

• builds and stays stagnant over time

multiple intelligences

Eight relatively independent intelligences that come in different “packages”.

triarchic theory of intelligence

three intelligences define success more than academic intelligence

• analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

early intelligence tests

IQ = (mental age / chronological age) x 100

psychometric principles

fundamental features that an assessment must meet to be considered high quality.

standardization and norms

All factors regarding timing, directions, setting, and monitoring should be the same for all test takers. Standardized tests also use norms- the distribution of scores of a clearly defined group.

validity

the degree to which assessments succeed in measuring what they are designed to measure.

• constructive and predictive

construct validity

the extent to which a test or measurement accurately assesses the theoretical concept it's intended to measure, especially when that concept is not directly observable.

predictive validity

the extent to which an assessment accurately forecasts performance on a future measure.

reliability

the consistency and stability of results are an assessment’s reliability.

• test-retest and split-half

test-retest reliability

the degree to which an assessment yields similar individual results each time it is taken

split-half reliability

degree to which two halves of an exam have equal difficulty

systemic issues in intelligence assessments

issues deeply embedded within the structures and processes of society have shaped quantitative and qualitative interpretations of intelligence scores.

• Ex: Personal & Socio Cultural Bias, Poverty, Discrimination & Educational Inequities

quantitative measures

psychometric tests that yield an IQ score.

qualitative measures

descriptive, behavioral, and process-oriented observation rather than just numerical scores, focusing on how a person thinks, solves problems, and adapts.

Socio-culturally responsive assessments:

intelligence tests must provide all test takers, regardless of their racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic background, an equal chance to demonstrate abilities.

stereotype threat

“performing down” when one believes that their group traditionally scores poorly on a test.

stereotype lift

“performing up” when positive stereotypes about their group are activated.

The Flynn Effect

(Generational Changes) people are getting “smarter”, or at least increasing their quantitative scores. Why?!?