4.1-4.3

Prejudice

an unjustified judgment, opinion, or attitude directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Implicit attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

Ethnocentrism

the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture

Out-group homogeneity bias

the perception that individuals in an out-group are more similar (homogeneous) than they really are, as compared to members of one's in-group

In-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group over other groups

Belief perseverance

the tendency to continue believing something even after the evidence supporting it has been contradicted

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Cognitive dissonance

the discomfort a person feels when their beliefs are inconsistent with their actions

Cognitive load

the amount of information the working memory can process at any given time

Attribution

the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others

situational attribution

attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck

explanatory style

A person's characteristic way of explaining his experiences. Consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression.

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

refers to an individuals tendency to attribute another's actions to their character or personality, while attributing their behavior to external situation factors outside their control

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Mere Exposure Effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

self-fulfilling prophecies

Process the witch and originally false expectation leads to its own confirmation

Social Comparison

the comparison of oneself to others in ways that raise one's self-esteem

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

out-group homogeneity bias

our tendency to see out-group members as being pretty much all alike

In-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

cognitive dissonance

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

Social Norms

A group's expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members' attitudes and behaviors.

Social Influence Theory

People are more likely to do whatever they see as being the norm. It states that people have a tendency to change their behavior according to those around them, and those nearby have stronger effects than those further away.

Central route persuasion

A method of convincing others to take an action or make a decision based on facts and evidence of the merits of the outcome

peripheral route persuasion

Uses positive association with cues such as beauty, fame, and positive emotions

foot-in-the-door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face

people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

Multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Altruism

Unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others

Social Reciprocity Norm

The belief that if someone does something for you then you should do something for them

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Dispositional Attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones (internal)

Situation Attribution

the assumption that another person is doing something because of factors in the environment or the situation they are in (external)

ex- lost job, disabled veteran

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency, when analyzing others' behavior, to overestimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effects of the situation (only focused on behavior of others)

Saliency Bias

situations are less salient (noticeable) than internal traits

Self serving bias

-a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

-take credit for success but blame failure on external factor

ex- good vs. bad SAT scores

Actor-observer Bias

a tendency to blame personal shortcomings on external factors and the shortcomings of others on internal qualities

ex- tripping on the sidewalk, good or bad score on tests

Cultural Bias (individualistic)

emphasize independence and personal responsibility

-places like US, Canada

-more likely to commit FAE and self serving bias

Cultural Bias (collectivist)

emphasize independence and collective responsibility

-places like Japan, China

-more likely to be aware of how situational factors influence behavior

Hindsight Bias

the tendency for people to perceive events as having been more predictable than they actually were

-"I knew it all along"

ex- Battle of Gettysburg

False Consensus Effect

a tendency to see our own attitudes and behaviors as being typical

-a desire to view ones own thoughts as appropriate, normal and correct

ex- environmental issues, terrible movie

Confirmation bias

favors information that confirms you existing belief

ex-choosing college, poltical views

Halo Effect

a type of bias where the overall impression of a person influences the way we feel about their character, also called "physical attractiveness stereotype"

ex- jury convictions, educators