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What is the bone issue most commonly found in young animals?
Bone development issues
What is the bone issue most commonly found in old animals?
Bone fractures
What are the four sections of the head?
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Hyoid apparatus
What are the sutures in the skull?
Fibrous joints, mostly collagen
What is the name of the holes in the incisive bone where the teeth sit?
Alveoli
What bone of the skull does the hyoid apparatus attach to?
The temporal bone
What is the purpose of sinuses?
To moisten and warm air passing through
What kind of sinuses do dogs and cats have?
Frontal sinuses
Maxillary sinuses
What kind of sinuses do horses have?
A complex network of sinuses
Why are some sinuses in horses split into two?
Because they are so large
What part of the vertebrae causes the withers?
Spinous process
What is the function of intervertebral discs?
Allows the spine to flex and provides cushioning between vertebrae
Name two reasons why vertebrae may touch.
An intervertebral disc could puncture
An intervertebral disc could slip out
What is made when floating ribs fuse together?
The costal arch
Name the 3 hormones responsible for control of calcium present in bones.
Parathyroid hormone
Calcitriol
Calcitonin
Name a bone disease caused by low calcium
Osteomalacia
Osteoporosis
What is an osteoblast?
An immature cell that can synthesise osteoid
What is an osteocyte?
Bone cells, essentially osteoblasts that have become trapped by the matrix they produce
What is an osteoclast?
A cell that can break down and remodel bone
In which age group are osteoblasts most common?
Infants
What is the name of the finger-like projections found in lacunae?
Canaliculi
Name the 2 main types of bone
Compact
Spongy
Where is compact bone most found?
Areas prone to stress
Where is spongy bone most found?
The ends of long bones and the middle of short/flat bones
What does yellow bone marrow produce?
White blood cells
What does red bone marrow produce?
Red blood cells
Define diaphysis.
The central shaft of a long bone
Define epiphysis.
The end of a long bone
Define metaphysis.
The area between the diaphysis and epiphysis in a long bone, contains the epiphyseal growth plate
What does the diaphysis contain?
Yellow bone marrow
What does the epiphysis contain?
Red bone marrow
Cancellous bone
What does the metaphysis contain?
The growth plate
Define ossification
The creation of bone
Explain the process of intermembranous ossification
Occurs within the membrane of the foetus, no cartilage template, osteoblasts lay down bone between 2 layers of fibrous connective tissue.
Explain the process of endochondral ossification
The replacement of a cartilage template with bone, starts in embryo but completes when the animal reaches skeletal maturity.
Where are primary ossification centres found?
The diaphyses of bones
Where are secondary ossification centres found?
The epiphyses of bones
Explain what happens at primary ossification centres
Cartilage on the side of the diaphysis side of the growth plate are steadily converted to bone, osteoclasts remodel the interior and create the medullary cavity.
Explain what happens in secondary ossification centres.
Growth plate produces new cartilage cells on the epiphysis side
Bone elongates at either side
Once the bone has reached its full length the cartilage is ossified
The growth plate is closed in
What are the 3 types of joints?
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
Give an example of where you find fibrous joints.
As sutures in the skull
What are the 2 types of cartilaginous joints and where do you find them?
Synchondroses - between epiphyses and diaphyses in growing animals
Symphyses - between the mandible bones in the jaw
Give an example of where you find synovial joints.
Ball and socket joints e.g. the shoulder
What 2 things make up the joint capsule?
Synovial layer
Fibrous layer
What is synovial fluid?
An ultrafiltrate of blood
Define flexion.
Bending the limb by decreasing the angle of the joint
Define extension.
Straightening the limb by increasing the angle of the joint
Define adduction.
Moving the limb distal to the joint towards the midline
Define abduction.
Moving the limb distal to the joint away from the midline
Define gliding.
Flat surfaces moving over each other
Define rotation.
Turning the limb round its long axis
Define circumduction.
Moving one end of a bone in a circular motion
Define protraction.
Lengthening the limb by moving distal limb away from the body
Define retraction.
Shortening the limb by moving the distal limb towards the body
Define supination.
Turning the palmar/plantar surface more cranially
Define pronation.
Turning the palmar/plantar surface more caudally
What are ligaments mostly made of?
Elastic fibres
What are tendons mostly made of?
Collagen fibres
What is the synovial sheath?
A connective tissue layer surrounding tendons, prevents the bone from rubbing on the tendon
What is the synovial bursa?
A sac sitting between a tendon and bone that acts as a cushion, made up of a synovial membrane full of synovial fluid
What is the meniscus?
Cartilage that acts as a shock absorber
What is the stay apparatus?
Adaptations found in horses which allow the horse to rest and sleep in a standing position
How does the stay apparatus work?
The patella tendon hooks onto the medial epicondyle
What is the equivalent of the suspensory ligament in dogs and cats?
The suspensory muscle
What is the purpose of annular ligaments?
They help to attach the tendons onto bones
What is the origin point?
Where the tendon starts, proximal to the body
What is the insertion point?
Where the tendon attaches to the bone, distal to the body
Define sarcomere.
The functional unit of a muscle cell
How do sarcomeres contract?
The actin hooks onto the myosin and pulls towards the centre, requires calcium and ATP
What are myofibrils?
A bunch of sarcomeres
What is the sarcolemma?
The cell membrane of a muscle cell
What region is covered by the latissimus?
Starts at the cranial thorax
Spans along lateral side
Attaches onto back
What causes the twitch reflex?
The latissimus
What are the flexors and extensors in forelimbs?
Everything cranial is a flexor, everything caudal is an extensor
What are the flexors and extensors in forelimbs?
Cranial muscles extend digits and flex tarsus, Caudal muscles flex digits and extend tarsus