PSYCH 207 Final Review

Clinical interview

a research paradigm in which an investigator begins by asking participants a series of open-ended questions but follows up on the responses with specific questions that have been prepared in advance

Brain imaging

the construction of pictures of the anatomy and functioning of intact brains through techniques

Clinical interview

a research paradigm in which an investigator begins by asking participants a series of open-ended questions but follows up on the responses with specific questions that have been prepared in advance

Controlled observation

a research paradigm in which an observer standardizes the conditions of observation for all participants, often introducing specific manipulations and recording responses

Experiment

a test of a scientific theory in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable(s) to test the results of a dependent variable(s)

Introspection

a methodological technique in which trained observers are asked to reflect on, and report on, their conscious experience while performing cognitive tasks

Naturalistic observation

a research paradigm in which an observer observes participants in familiar, everyday contexts while ideally remaining as unobtrusive as possible

Quasi-experiment

an empirical study that appears to involve some, but incomplete, experimental control (eg, Non-random assignment of subjects to conditions)

Behaviourism

• a school of psychology that seeks to define psychological research in terms of observable measures, emphasizing the scientific study of behaviour

• Challenged psychologists to develop testable hypotheses and to avoid unresolvable debates

Functionalism

• a school of psychology emphasizing questions such as why the mind or a particular cognitive process works the way(s) it does

• Reminded psychologists to focus on the larger purposes and contexts that cognitive processes serve 

Individual differences

stable patterns of performance that differ qualitatively and/or quantitatively across individuals

Gestalt psychology

• a school of psychology emphasizing the study of whole entities (overall structure of their experience) rather than simple elements (eg, Sensations)

• Pointed out that an understanding of individual units would not automatically lead to an understanding of whole processes and systems 

Structuralism

• a school of cognitive psychology that focuses on the search for the simplest possible mental elements and the laws governing the ways in which they could be combined

• Asked "what are the elementary units and processes of the mind?" 

Controlled observation

a research paradigm in which an observer standardizes the conditions of observation for all participants, often introducing specific manipulations and recording responses

Paradigm

a body of knowledge that selects and highlights certain issues for study

Between-subjects design

a research paradigm in which different experimental subjects participate in different experimental conditions

Within-subjects design

a research paradigm in which the same experimental subjects participate in different experimental conditions

Information-processing approach

• an approach to cognition that uses a computer metaphor in its explanations

• Focuses researchers on the functional aspects of cognition (what processes are used towards what ends) 

Connectionist approach

• an approach to cognition dealing with a network of connections among simple (and numerous) processing units

• Focuses on underlying "hardware"  

• How the global cognitive processes described by an information-processing model are implemented in the human brain 

Evolutionary approach

• an approach to cognition processing that has been shaped by environmental pressure to that allows them to adapt to their environment

• How a cognitive system or function has evolved over generations  

Ecological approach

• an approach to the study of cognition emphasizing the natural contexts or settings in which cognitive activities occur, and the influences such settings have in the ways in which cognitive activities are acquired, practiced, and executed

• Consider the context of any cognitive process to understand more completely how that process functions in the real world  

Cognitive science

an interdisciplinary field drawing on research from cognitive psychology, computer science, philosophy, linguistics, neuroscience, and anthropology

Cognitive neuropsychology

a school of psychology that investigates the cognitive abilities and deficits of people with damaged or otherwise unusual brain structures

Linguistics

a field of study focusing on the structure, use, and acquisition of language

Artificial intelligence

a branch of computer science concerned with creating computers that mimic human performance on cognitive tasks

Human factors engineering

an applied area of research that focuses on the design of equipment and technology that is well suited to people's cognitive capabilities

Language

a system of communication that is governed by a system of rules (a grammar) and can express an infinite number of propositions

Limited-capacity processor

a system that acquires, stores, manipulates, and/or transmits information but has fixed limits on the amount or rate of processing that it can accomplish

Person-machine system

the idea that machinery operated by a person must be designed to interact with the operator's physical, cognitive, and motivational capacities and limitations

Association

a connection or link between two units or elements

Attention

cognitive resources, mental effort, or concentration devoted to a cognitive process

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an initial stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response (uncontrolled stimulus), resulting in a learned, or conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented

Instrumental (operant) conditioning

a type of learning which uses positive reinforcement or punishment to either encourage (positive reinforcement) or discourage (punishment) a certain behaviour

Cognitive revolution

a movement in psychology characterised by a belief in the empirical accessibility of mental states and events

Cell assemblies

connections among sets of cells in the brain

Computer metaphor

the basis for the information-processing view of the brain

Decision making

the process(es) by which an individual selects one course of action from among alternatives

Ecological validity

a property of research such that the focus of study is something that occurs naturally outside an experimental laboratory

Experimental control

a property of research such that the causes of different behaviours or other phenomenon can be isolated and tested

Empiricism

a philosophical doctrine emphasizing the role of experience in the acquisition of knowledge

Generative grammar

a mentally represented system of rules

Knowledge representation

the mental depiction, storage, and organization of information

Localization of function

the "mapping" of brain areas to different cognitive or motor functions; identifying which neural regions control or are active when different activities take place

Memory

the cognitive processes underlying the storage, retention, and retrieval of information

Mental representation

an internal depiction of information

Nativism

a philosophical doctrine emphasizing the role of innate factors in the acquisition of knowledge

Neural network

the way collections of neurons operate as a network of interconnected nodes in the brain in order to process information

Pattern recognition

the classification of a stimulus into a category

Perception

the interpretation of sensory information to yield a meaningful description or understanding

Problem solving

the cognitive process(es) used in transforming starting information into a goal state, using specified means of solution

Reasoning

cognitive process(es) used in transforming given information, called premises, into conclusions, Reasoning is often seen as a special kind of thinking

Recall

the retrieval of information in which the processor must generate most of the information without aids

Recognition

the retrieval of information in which the processor must decide whether the information presented has been previously presented

Cognitive psychology

all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used

Conscious experience

an active reconstructive process

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Brain imaging (techniques)

the construction of pictures of the anatomy and functioning of intact brains through techniques

Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan

an imaging technique in which a highly focused beam of X-rays is passed through the body from many different angles; Differing density of the organs of the body result in different deflections of the X-rays, which allows visualization of the organ

Electroencephalography (EEG)

a technique to measure brain activity, specifically to detect different states of consciousness; Metal electrodes are positioned all over the scalp; The waveforms that are recorded change in predictable ways when the person being recorded is awake and alert, drowsy, asleep, or in a coma

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

a technique to measure changes in magnetic fields generated by electrical activities of neurons

Event-related potential (ERP)

an electrical recording technique to measure the response of the brain to various stimulus events / a specific event, using electrodes attached to the scalp and then presented external stimuli, measuring brain activity from before the stimulus until afterwards

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

an imaging technique that uses MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) equipment to examine blood flow in a non-invasive, nonradioactive manner

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a body-imaging technique in which a person is surrounded with a strong magnetic field; radio waves are directed at a particular part of the body, causing the centers of hydrogen atoms in those structures to align themselves in predictable ways; Computer collate information about how the atoms are aligning and produce a composite three-dimensional image

Positron emission tomography (PET)

a brain-imaging technique that shows which areas of the brain are most active at a given point in time, that involves injecting a radioactively labelled compound (radioisotopes of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine subatomic particles that rapidly emit gamma radiation, which can be detected by devices outside the head)

Localization of function

the "mapping" of brain areas to different cognitive or motor functions; identifying which neural regions control or are active when different activities take place

Brain stem

a structure consisting of the medulla and pons in the hindbrain, as well as the midbrain and certain structures of the forebrain

Cerebral cortex

the surface of the cerebrum, the largest structure of the brain, containing both sensory and motor nerve cell bodies

Frontal lobe

a division of the cerebral cortex located just beneath the forehead (containing the motor cortex, premotor cortex, and the prefrontal cortex)

Motor cortex

a region in the frontal lobe that directs fine motor movement in the body

Premotor cortex

a region in the frontal lobe that's involved in planning fine motor movements

Prefrontal cortex

a region in the frontal lobe that is involved with executive functioning

Occipital lobe

a division of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the head that is involved in the processing of visual information

Parietal lobe

a division of the cerebral cortex located at the top rear part of the head; contains the primary somatosensory cortex

Primary somatosensory cortex

a region in the parietal lobe involved in the processing of sensory information from the body (eg, sensations of pain, pressure, touch, or temperature)

Temporal lobe

a division of the cerebral cortex located on the side of the head, involved in the processing of auditory information and in some aspects of memory

Central sulcus

a prominent shallow groove on the surface of the brain that divides the frontal and parietal lobes

Lateral sulcus

a prominent shallow groove that helps define the temporal lobe

Forebrain

the part of the brain containing the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and the cerebral cortex

Amygdala

an area of brain tissue with extensive connections to the olfactory system and hypothalamus, thought to be involved in mood, feeling, instinct, and short-term memory

Hippocampus

a structure of the brain in the medial temporal lobe

Hypothalamus

a structure in the forebrain that control the pituitary gland and so-called homeostatic behaviours (eg, eating, drinking, temperature control, sleeping, sexual behaviours, and emotional reactions)

Thalamus

a structure in the forebrain involved in relaying information, especially to the cerebral cortex

Midbrain

the part of the brain containing structures that are involved in relaying information between other brain regions, or in regulating levels of alertness

Corpus callosum

the large neural structure containing fibres that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres

Hindbrain

the part of the brain, containing some of the evolutionarily primitive structures, that is responsible for transmitting information from the spinal cord to the brain, regulating life support functions, and helping to maintain balance

Cerebellum

part of the brain that controls balance and muscular coordination

Medulla oblongata

a structure in the hindbrain that transmits information from the spinal cord to the brain and regulates life support functions such as respiration, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, vomiting, and heart rate

Pons

• in the hindbrain that acts as a neural relay center,

  • facilitates the "crossover" of information between the left side of the body and right side of the brain and vice versa

• It is also involved in balance and in the processing of both visual and auditory information

Ablation

removal of cells or tissues, often through surgical means

Aphasia

a disorder of language, thought to have neurological causes, in which either language production, language reception, or both, are disrupted

Broca's (/non-fluent) aphasia

a disorder of language in which the person is unable to produce many words or to speak very fluently

Wernicke's aphasia

a disorder of language in which the person is able to produce speech with seemingly fluent contours of pitch and rhythm, but the speech often makes no sense and contains gibberish, also unable to understand speech

Broca's area

region of the brain that contains neurons involved in speech function

Executive functioning

cognitive processes including planning, making decisions, implementing strategies, inhibiting inappropriate behaviours, and using working memory to process information

Faculty psychology

the theory that different mental abilities, such as reading or computation, are independent and autonomous functions, carried out in different parts of the brain

Fluorodeoxyglucose

a radioisotope structurally similar to glucose

Gyrus

a convolution or ridge of the brain

Hormones

specialized chemicals that help to regulate other glands in the body

Lateralization

specialization of function of the two cerebral hemispheres

Bilateralization

when an individual does not show a specialization for a certain cognitive function (eg, Language) in one hemisphere (eg, Typically language in the left), but instead have that function in both hemispheres