anatomy midterm 1

all

sagittal plane

left and right side of the body

mid-sagittal

equal halves of left and right

para-sagittal

unequal splits of left and right sides

transverse plane

horizontal cut of the body, like a guillotine, splits the body between the top and bottom halves

frontal plane

cut the body into front and back halves; no symmestry

medial

closest to the center of the body

lateral

farther from the center of the body

proximal

points on a limb closest to the trunk

distal

points of the limb farthest from the trunk

superior

above

inferior

below

ipsilateral

same side

contralateral

opposite side

ventral/anterior

front of the body

dorsal/posterior

back/behind

palmar/volar

palm side of the hand

plantar

bottom of the foot (footprint)

dorsal

the part of the hand and foot that isn't palmar/plantar

superficial

surface level

deep

center, underneath

joints

the point where 2 bones meet; point of movement; or articular surface

muscle

cross joints to allow for movement

origin

where the muscle begins, muscles touch bone proximally

insertion

where muscle ends; muscles touch done distally

prone/pronation

laying on the stomach/hands facing down

supine/supination

laying on the spine/hands facing up

neutral

neither prone nor supine, thumb is up/side

anatomical position

body and hands in the supine position

tissue

a collection of similar cells and cell products forming a definite kind of structural material with a specific function

biological levels

cells - tissues - organ - organ system - organism

cells types in organs

each cell type is present in each other but in different proportions

epithelial tissue

used as a coverage for protection, secrete and absorb materials
- not great blood flow or healing ability

simple squamous

one layer of flat cells
ex: air sacs of lung, blood vessels, and lining of heart
- allows for diffusion of materials, secretes lubricating substances

simple cuboidal

one layer of cuboidal cells
ex: in glands and kidney tubules
- secretes and absorbs

simple columnar

one layer of column-like cells
ex: in bronchi, and digestive tract
- absorbs and secretes mucus; has microvilli and cilia

pseudostratified columnar

one layer of columnar-like cells but the nucleus in each cell does not sit evenly among each cell so it appears stratified when it is not
ex: in the trachea
- secretes mucus, cilia move it

stratified squamous

many layers of flat cells
ex: esophagus and mouth
- protects against abrasion

stratified cuboidal

many layers of cuboidal cells
ex: sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands
- protective tissue and secretion

stratified columnar

many layers of column-like cells
ex: urethra in males and some ducts of glands
- secretes and protects

transitional

no cell uniformity
ex: line the bladder, urethra, and ureters
- allows for stretching and expanding

cilia

used for ECM movement

microvilli

increase surface area for better absorption properties

tight junctions

interlocking cells

desmosomes

use intermediate filaments as cell support

gap junctions

connects neighbor to neighbor cells; bridge cytoplasm together for exchange

hemidesmosomes

similar to desmosomes but hold the cell to the basal lamina

glands purpose

secrete material

endocrine

molecules that are secreted into the blood

exocrine

molecules that are released to the surface

connective tissue

connects other tissues and create a barrier to separate tissue types

• not great blood flow or healing ability

• fewer cells and more matrix

is blood connective tissue

yes because it is derived from bone

types of connective tissue

loose, fibrous, adipose, cartilage, bone, blood, dense part of connective tissue proper

loose (areolar) connective tissue

part of connective tissue paper: a lot of open space for nerves, blood vessels, and organs can be found here

dense part of connective tissue

a lot of matrix and collagen
- good at stretch resistance

irregular dense part of connective tissue

collagen fibers are in many directions

regular dense part of connective tissue

collagen fibers in one direction, good at stretching in one direction

contractile tissue

aka muscles, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles; great for shortening/contracting

• lots of cells

• good blood supply/healing ability

nervous tissue

found in CNS and PNS; transmits electrical signals/information

• good blood supply but poor healing from severe injury

• made of more than one type of cell

neruon

carry out the signal in nervous tissue

glial cells

supporting cells in nervous tissue

bones

connective tissue, used for structural support, and protection
- composed of mostly inorganic matter and some living cells

compact bone

outer shell, dense, fewer cells, more matrix, good for structural support

osteons/haversian systems

subunits of compact bone, look like a tree trunk

central/haversian canal

the open space of an osteon that holds the blood vessels and nerves

concentric lamellae

the rings that make up the osteon

lacuna

small space when osteocytes live/get trapped in

osteocytes

mature bone cells that are located in the lacuna

interstitial lamellae

the part of the bone that fills the space between the different osteons

perforating/volksmann canal

"tunnels" that connects blood vessels in the central canals perpendicularly

circumferential lamellae

smooths out all of the osteon of the compact bone as a whole

spongey bone

mostly hollow, contains wiry rods of trabeculae, hollow spaces between trabeculae for blood vessel and bone marrow

• does not have osteons because the spaces between the trabeculae are enough for blood supply

• many parts are the same as a compact bone except the lack of osteons, central and perforating canals, interstitial and circumferential lamellae

canaliculi

openings on the surface of trabeculae
- has osteoblasts and osteoclasts as surrounding cells

osteoblast

bone growth

osteoclast

bone breakdown

bone fractures and healing process

when you fracture a bone, you got to fix that piece

fracture reduction

connect the broken pieces together by physical means

open reduction

surgically bringing back the broken pieces together

• open the body to fix the fracture

• hardware is used but many risks

• used if closed reduction didn't work

• quicker recovery time

closed reduction

no need to cut open the body where the fracture occurred

• the primary choice of fracture reduction

• there is no good approximation of where the fracture happened because you can't see it

growth plates fractures

fractures at the epiphyseal plate can lead to poor bone growth/development

• usually in long bones (the ends of long bones are epiphysis)

• primary place of bone growth

• once you are done growing, the plate becomes a line

• epiphyseal plates are mostly in children, epiphyseal lines are mostly in adults

healing stage of bone

1. hematoma formation

2. fibrocartilaginous callus formation

3. boney callus formation

4. bone remodeling

hematoma formation

"blood tumor"

• a lot of bleeding occurs due to the broken bone

• osteoblasts and osteoclasts are working

• internal bleeding

• 1-2 weeks

fibrocartilaginous callus formation

form some cartilage before the bone in the space of the fracture

• callus: a bump of fibrocartilage around the fracture site

• see a little bit of spongy bone

• more osteoblast action

• 2-6 weeks

boney callus formation

a lot more bone growth

• more spongy bone formation

• still a callus but with spongy bone instead of fibrocartilage

• a lot of osteoblast action

• 6 weeks - 6 months

bone remodeling

two major events occur here - compact bone replaces spongey bone AND removal of the callus

• see both osteoblast and osteoclast working hard

• 6 months - 1 year

osteoporosis

the lost of bone density

• loss is due to less osteoblast and more osteoclast activity

• seems to be genetically based

wolff's law

the body will develop stronger bones if it is being used

• use it or lose it

• more use of the bones = stronger bones

• could be so the body is reserving energy/more efficient

• people who are more active seem to reduce the risk of osteoporosis due to this law

red bone marrow

where the red blood cells are made

• in the marrow space of the spongy bone

• RBC, WBC, and platelets

yellow bone marrow

where fat is stored
- center of the shaft

leukemia

cancer of the bone marrow that develops WBC resulting in the production of too much nonfunctional WBC

• WBC = leukocytes

• nonfunctional WBC puts pressure on the bone marrow to try to produce more WBC that work (but is unsuccessful)

• lack of RBC too

• immunocompromised

• can perform a bone marrow transplant: first kill off all the cancerous bone marrow and take in the new one

periosteum

a layer of the dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the bone
- allows muscle and tendon attachment

perforating fibers

an anchor for the periosteum to attach to the bones' surface

endosteum

the layer of dense irregular connective tissue that lines the inside (where bone marrow sits) of the bone

shin splints/periostitis

inflammation and swelling underneath the periosteum

• caused by high stress on the periosteum

• the muscle that is attached to the shin pulls/yanks at the bone

• resting will heal but fix the way you walk

• inflammation is an indication of healing (look at the ending "-itis")

long bone

good for limbs, better functions
- femur or humerus

short bone

good for motion and works with joints
- carpals and metatarsals

irregular bone

have different functions in the body

• so much room for activity

• different muscles can attach

• vertebrae

flat bone

large surface for more muscle attachment

• big open sockets to protect organs

• pelvic bone

sesamoid bone

sesame seed, bone encased by tendon or ligament

• patella

• allows for better movement due to angular placement/encasement

cartilage

type of connective tissue, more matrix, and less cell composition
- not as rigid as bone acts as a cushion for bone

organic material

chondrocytes - make up the ground substance/fibroblasts - make up the collagen and elastin fibers